Organic Chemistry and Macromolecules

Study Notes

Organic compounds are molecules primarily composed of carbon.
Carbon is abundant on Earth and forms covalent bonds easily, enabling diverse structures.
August Kekulé is credited with pioneering the understanding of organic chemistry.

Macromolecules are large organic molecules crucial for biological processes.
They are formed by linking smaller units called monomers.
Monomers are easily assembled, transported, and broken down.
Polymers are long chains of covalently bonded monomers, enabling complex chemical reactions necessary for life.

Despite the vast diversity of life (2 million species), all organisms share fundamental molecules.
Albert Jan Kluijver discovered the concept of biochemical unity.

Carbohydrates: Primarily function in energy storage (short and long-term) and structural support.
Lipids: Serve as long-term energy storage, hormones, and structural components.
Proteins: Involved in manufacturing, hormonal functions, and structural support.
Nucleic Acids: Store and transfer genetic information, synthesize proteins, and facilitate energy transfer.

Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Function in energy storage and release through their bonds, and as structural components.
Types:
- Monosaccharides: Simple sugar monomers.
- Disaccharides: Polymers of two sugars.
- Oligosaccharides: Polymers of 2-10 sugars.
- Polysaccharides: Polymers of more than 10 sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose).
Common Sugars:
- Fructose: Found in honey and fruits.
- Glucose: Primary energy source for cells.
- High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS-55): A prevalent dietary sweetener, linked to obesity, heart attacks, and diabetes mellitus.

Sucrose (Table Sugar):
- Composed of fructose and glucose.
- Major sources: sugarcane, sugar beet, palmyra palm, and coconut palm.
Maltose:
- Two glucose molecules.
- Found in grains (barley, wheat, corn, sorghum, and rye) and alcoholic beverages.
Lactose:
- Disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose.
- Found in milk and dairy products.
- Lactose intolerance leads to flatulence, bloating, nausea, and diarrhea.
- Genetic tolerance varies (75% of white populations are tolerant, while 90% of ethnic groups are intolerant).
Polysaccharides in Plants & Algae:
- Starch: Energy storage in plants, primarily composed of amylopectin with 10-20% amylose.
- Cellulose: Structural component of plant and algal cells, the most abundant polymer on Earth, used in textiles like cotton, rayon, and cellophane.
Polysaccharides in Animals & Fungi:
- Chitin: Forms cell walls of fungi, shells of arthropods, and mouth parts of mollusks.
- Second most common polymer on Earth.
- Industrial uses: water purification, food and drug thickener, laboratory membranes, dye and fabric binder, paper size and strength enhancer, biodegradable surgical sutures.

Guar Gum:
- Composed of galactose and mannose.
- Applications in petroleum and natural gas drilling, food processing, weapons, cosmetics, and livestock feed.
- A key component of the Indian economy, with 200,000 tons harvested annually.
Agar:
- Derived from red algae.
- Used in dairy desserts, dental impressions, and as a growth medium for bacteria.

Sugars bound to another reactive molecule.
Produced by plants as protective chemicals, used in medicines, poisons, and spices.

Include fats, waxes, and oils.
Mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons).
Functions: energy storage, cellular structure, communication, insulation, and protection.
Lipids are Critically Important:
- Hormones: Long-distance chemical messengers.
- Napalm: Can be used as a weapon.
- Vitamins A, D, E, and K: Essential for human diets.
- Stimulate food cravings.
- Vital for nervous, immune, endocrine, and reproductive systems.
- Mostly obtained from meat, but also from coconuts, avocados, olives, and nuts.
Steroids:
- Lipids with a specific structure, containing 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings.
- Derived from cholesterol.
Triglycerides:
- Consist of three hydrocarbon chains.
- The main constituents of vegetable oils and animal fats.
- Form cellular borders.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated:
- Saturated: No double bonds between carbon atoms, solid at room temperature.
- Unsaturated: Contain double bonds between carbon atoms, liquid at room temperature.