Study Guide POLS 1101 Exam 1.pdf

Ch. 1: An Introduction to American Government and Politics Section 2: What is Government? Vocabulary: ○ Government: The institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies. ○ Legitimate Authority: Recognition by the governed that th...

Ch. 1: An Introduction to American Government and Politics Section 2: What is Government? Vocabulary: ○ Government: The institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies. ○ Legitimate Authority: Recognition by the governed that the government has the right to make decisions and enforce laws. ○ Sovereignty: The supreme authority of a state to govern itself or another state. ○ Legislative Branch/Legislature: The branch of government responsible for making laws. ○ Executive Branch: The branch responsible for implementing and enforcing laws. ○ Judicial Branch/Courts: The branch that interprets laws and administers justice. ○ Power of the Sword: The authority to enforce laws through force if necessary. Institutions: ○ Federal Legislature: Congress (House of Representatives and Senate). ○ Georgia Legislature: Georgia General Assembly (House of Representatives and Senate). ○ Heads of Executive Branch: Federal Government: President. Georgia Government: Governor. ○ Highest Courts: Federal Government: Supreme Court. Georgia Government: Georgia Supreme Court. Bureaucratic Agencies: Belong to the executive branch. Legitimate Authority: Yes, all governments claim it. Section 3: Two More Ways Governments Exercise Power over the People Vocabulary: ○ Relational Power: Influence based on relationships and social connections. ○ Power of the Purse: Control over financial resources and spending. ○ Positive Incentive: Rewards or benefits offered to encourage certain behaviors. ○ Negative Incentive: Penalties or consequences imposed to discourage certain behaviors. ○ Affecting Hearts and Minds: Persuasion and shaping public opinion through emotional appeal. ○ Propaganda: Information, especially biased or misleading, used to promote a political cause. Difference: Power of the purse is about financial control; power of the sword involves physical enforcement. Positive vs. Negative Incentives: Positive incentives reward behavior (e.g., tax breaks), while negative incentives punish (e.g., fines).  Power of the Purse: It’s not part of government definition as it's often used in broader economic contexts beyond governance. Affecting Hearts and Minds: It’s not part of government definition since it refers to persuasion, not direct governance. Section 4: A Universal Purpose of Government: Providing Public Goods Vocabulary: ○ Private Goods: Goods that are individually owned and consumed. ○ Public Goods: Goods that are available to all and cannot be excluded from use. ○ Free Riding: Benefiting from a public good without contributing to its cost. ○ Collective Action Problems: Situations where individuals would benefit from cooperating but fail to do so. Public Goods Provided by Governments: National defense and public education. Section 5: American Government: A Liberal Democracy Vocabulary: ○ Liberal Democracy: A system of government characterized by fair and free elections, individual rights, and rule of law. ○ Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. ○ Direct Democracy: Citizens directly participate in decision-making. ○ Authoritarian Government: Concentrated power with limited political freedoms. ○ Interest Group: An organization advocating for specific policies. ○ Political Party: An organized group that seeks to gain political power. ○ Limited Government: A government with restricted powers to protect individual rights. ○ Rule of Law: The principle that law applies equally to all individuals. ○ Constitutional Government: Government operates according to established laws. ○ Sham Constitution: A constitution that is not adhered to in practice. ○ Constitutional Protections for Human Rights: Laws that safeguard individual freedoms. ○ Separation of Powers: Division of government responsibilities into distinct branches. ○ Checks and Balances: Mechanisms to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. ○ Federalism: Division of power between national and state governments. Differences: Representative democracy uses elected officials; direct democracy involves citizens directly in law-making. Authoritarian vs. Democratic Government: Authoritarian regimes restrict freedoms; democracies emphasize citizen participation and rights. Sham Constitution: No, it fails to operate as a genuine constitutional government.  Separation of Powers: The executive branch wields the power of the sword; the legislative branch has the power of the purse. Section 6: The Current State of American Politics Vocabulary: ○ Politics: The process by which groups make decisions. ○ Pernicious Polarization: Extreme division that threatens democratic processes. Politics as an Alternative: Politics provides a peaceful means to resolve disputes and differences, avoiding authoritarianism or violence. Dangers of Pernicious Polarization: It can lead to gridlock, distrust in institutions, and a decrease in civic engagement. Sure! Let’s continue with the study guide. Ch. 7: Public Opinion Section 2: What is Public Opinion? Vocabulary: ○ Public Opinion: The collective attitudes and beliefs of individuals on certain issues. ○ Population: The entire group of individuals whose opinions are of interest. 3. The Scientific Measurement of Public Opinion Vocabulary: ○ Sample: A subset of the population selected for measurement. ○ Social Desirability Bias: The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. ○ Ordering Effects: The influence that the order of questions or answers can have on responses. ○ Double-Barreled Questions: Questions that ask about two issues but allow for only one answer. ○ Leading Questions: Questions that suggest a particular answer or response. ○ Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the demographics of the population. ○ Demographically Representative Sample: A sample that mirrors the demographic composition of the larger population. ○ Nonresponse Bias: When certain individuals do not respond to surveys, potentially skewing results. ○ Margin of Error: A measure of the accuracy of a poll's results.  Difference between Sample and Population: A sample is a smaller group taken from the larger population, which includes everyone. Typical Sample Size in Polls: Usually ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 respondents. Nonresponse Bias: If certain groups are less likely to respond, their views are underrepresented, leading to bias. Sample Size and Margin of Error: Larger samples generally result in a smaller margin of error, enhancing accuracy. Pollsters and Sample Sizes: They avoid excessively large samples (like 4,500) due to diminishing returns and increased costs. 4. A Citizens’ Guide to Interpreting Public Opinion Polls Vocabulary: ○ Bandwagon Effect: The phenomenon where individuals do something primarily because others are doing it. 5. What Influence Should Public Opinion Have on American Government? Vocabulary: ○ Delegate Model of Representation: Elected officials act according to the preferences of their constituents. ○ Trustee Model of Representation: Officials use their own judgment to make decisions on behalf of constituents. Difference between Delegate and Trustee Models: The delegate model prioritizes direct public opinion; the trustee model allows elected officials to exercise personal judgment. 6. Factors Influencing Public Opinion Vocabulary: ○ Political Predispositions: The stable preferences based on personal characteristics. ○ Political Socialization: The process by which individuals form their political attitudes. ○ Agents of Political Socialization: Factors such as family, education, and media that influence political beliefs. ○ Funnel of Causality: The theory that individual opinions are shaped over time by various influences. ○ Rational Ignorance: The idea that individuals may choose not to inform themselves about politics due to perceived costs outweighing benefits. ○ Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making. Political Predispositions and Socialization: Predispositions are shaped by socialization experiences; both are linked to individual beliefs and behaviors. Most Influential Agent of Socialization on Children: Family is typically the most influential.  Rational Ignorance Theory: Many Americans feel their vote has little impact, leading to low political knowledge. Heuristics: They provide shortcuts for decision-making but can lead to misinformed opinions. Economic Influence on Public Sentiment: A strong economy typically leads to increased approval of government and politicians, while a poor economy may result in disapproval. Chapter 8: Media Section 2. Media Basics Vocabulary: 1. Media: Various means of communication that disseminate information. 2. Information Revolution: Rapid changes in technology that impact information sharing. 3. Traditional Media: Established forms of media, such as newspapers and television. 4. Social Media: Digital platforms for sharing content and connecting with others. 5. Unmediated Communication: Direct communication without intermediaries. 6. Freedom of the Press: The right to report news without censorship or restraint. 7. Watchdog Role of the Press: The media's function to monitor government and inform the public. 8. Marketplace of Ideas: The concept that diverse ideas compete for acceptance in a free society. Upside and Downside of Unmediated Communication: 1. Upside: Greater access to diverse opinions. 2. Downside: Increased potential for misinformation. Constitutional Protections: 1. U.S. Constitution: First Amendment. 2. Georgia Constitution: Article I, Section I. Origin of "The Press": Refers to the printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg, facilitating mass communication. Two Vital Functions of a Free Press: 1. Informing the public. 2. Acting as a check on government power. Third Function of Social Media: Fostering direct engagement and grassroots activism. 3. The Evolution of the Media Vocabulary: ○ Informational Model of Journalism: Focuses on fact-based reporting without editorializing.  ○ Muckraking: Investigative journalism aimed at exposing corruption. ○ Soft News: Coverage that focuses on entertainment and human interest. ○ Citizen Journalism: Non-professional journalists reporting news. Local Newspapers: Many are struggling financially, reducing their ability to fulfill the watchdog role at the local level. Impact of Cable News and Information Revolution: Increased fragmentation of news sources leads to differing levels of political knowledge among the public. 4. Laws and Regulations Influencing Media in the United States Vocabulary: ○ Defamation: False statements that damage a person's reputation. ○ Slander: Spoken defamatory statements. ○ Libel: Written defamatory statements. ○ Net Neutrality: The principle that internet service providers should treat all data equally. ○ Equal-Time Rule: Requires broadcasters to provide equal opportunities for political candidates. ○ Section 230: Law providing immunity for website platforms from legal liability for user-generated content. Net Neutrality Debate: ○ Opposition by ISPs: They argue it limits their ability to manage networks. ○ Support by Advocates: They argue it ensures fair access to the internet for all. Section 230 Controversy: It’s debated for allowing social media platforms to avoid responsibility for harmful content while also enabling free speech. 5. Media Effects on Consumers Vocabulary: ○ Agenda Setting: The media's ability to influence the importance placed on issues. ○ Framing: The way information is presented to influence perception. ○ Thematic Framing: Contextualizes issues in a broad perspective. ○ Episodic Framing: Focuses on specific events or individual cases. ○ Priming: The media's influence on the criteria by which the public evaluates leaders or issues. Social Media vs. Traditional Agenda Setting: Social media can amplify certain narratives more rapidly and create echo chambers. Thematic vs. Episodic Framing: Thematic framing provides context and background, while episodic framing focuses on specific instances or stories. Polarized Trust Effects: Varying levels of trust in information sources can lead to diverging perceptions and beliefs between parties. 6. Media Bias  Vocabulary: ○ Ideological Bias: Favoring one perspective over others in reporting. ○ Reliability: The trustworthiness of a source. ○ Misinformation: False or misleading information. ○ Disinformation: Deliberately false information spread to deceive. ○ Market Bias: Bias resulting from the need to attract audiences. Claims of Bias: Both partisan groups often claim media bias against them, but typically Republicans express this more frequently. Diverse Information Sources: Exposing oneself to a variety of perspectives can lead to a more informed understanding of issues. Trustworthy Sources: Relying on credible sources enhances informed decision-making and public discourse. Cost Pressures on News Organizations: The need for revenue can compromise the quality of information provided, as sensationalism may be prioritized. Ch. 9: Political Parties Section 1: Introduction Vocabulary: ○ Political Party: An organized group that seeks to gain political power by electing its members to office. ○ Major Parties: The dominant political parties in a given system. Matching Concepts: ○ Blue: Democratic Party ○ Red: Republican Party ○ Grand Old Party (GOP): Republican Party ○ Elephant: Republican Party ○ Donkey: Democratic Party ○ Conservative: Republican Party ○ Liberal: Democratic Party ○ Right: Republican Party ○ Left: Democratic Party Section 2: Political Party Basics Vocabulary: ○ Major Parties: The primary political parties in a system. ○ Minor Parties: Smaller parties that struggle to gain major influence. ○ Third Parties: Parties other than the two dominant parties. ○ Majority Party: The party with more seats in a legislative body. ○ Minority Party: The party with fewer seats. ○ Interest Group: Organizations that advocate for specific issues or policies.  ○ Party Platform: A formal set of principles and goals for a political party. Differences between Political Parties and Interest Groups: Parties seek to gain control of government through elections; interest groups focus Contents of a Party Platform: Policies, goals, and values that the party supports. Section 3: Electoral Rules and Why the United States has a Two-Party System Vocabulary: ○ Two-Party System: A political system dominated by two major parties. ○ Multiparty System: A system with multiple parties competing for power. ○ Single Member District/Winner-Take-All System: Electoral system where only one candidate wins per district. ○ Proportional Representation System: Seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes received. ○ Duverger’s Law: The principle that single-member districts tend to favor a two-party system. U.S. Party System: The U.S. has a two-party system. Winner-Take-All vs. Proportional Representation: In winner-take-all, the candidate with the most votes wins all the representation; in proportional representation, parties gain seats in proportion to their vote share. Duverger’s Law Explanation: Single-member districts discourage third-party participation, leading to two dominant parties. Section 4: How Political Parties Formed Rise of the Republican Party (1854): Formed primarily in opposition to the expansion of slavery. Event Solidifying Dominance: The Civil War and its aftermath solidified the Republican and Democratic parties as the primary political entities. Section 5: Critical Elections and Realignment Vocabulary: ○ Party Realignment: A significant shift in party loyalty and identification. ○ Critical Election: An election that signals a significant change in the political landscape. Most Important Realignment: The New Deal coalition during the Great Depression. 1932 Presidential Election: A critical election that established the Democratic Party's dominance due to the economic crisis. Regional Party Associations: ○ Democratic Party: Strong in the Northeast and West Coast. ○ Republican Party: Strong in the South and Midwest. Ch. 6: Voting, Elections, and Political Participation Section 2: Elections in Georgia and the United States: Key Features and Concepts Vocabulary: ○ Primary Election: An election to determine a party's candidate for the general election. ○ General Election: The final election to select officeholders. ○ Presidential Election Years: Every four years when the President is elected. ○ Midterm Election Years: Elections for Congress held midway through the President's term. ○ Runoff Elections: A second election held if no candidate receives a majority. ○ Ranked-Choice Voting: A voting system that allows voters to rank candidates by preference. ○ Referendum: A direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal. ○ Citizen Ballot Initiative: A process that allows citizens to propose legislation. ○ Convenience Voting: Measures that make voting easier, like early or absentee voting. Constitutional Responsibility for Elections: Primary responsibility lies with state governments. Variation of Election Laws: Election laws vary significantly across states due to state sovereignty. Administration of Elections in Georgia: Elections are administered by each county. Even/Odd Year Elections: ○ Georgia Senate: Even-numbered years. ○ Georgia House of Representatives: Even-numbered years. ○ U.S. House of Representatives: Even-numbered years. ○ U.S. President: Even-numbered years. ○ Major Georgia Executive Branch Offices: Even-numbered years. ○ Atlanta Mayor: Even-numbered years. ○ Atlanta City Council: Even-numbered years. Referendums and Initiatives in Georgia: Georgia has both referendums and citizen ballot initiatives. Article X of Georgia Constitution: Requires a referendum for constitutional amendments. Convenience Voting in Georgia: Above average compared to other states. No-Excuse Absentee Voting: Yes, Georgia allows it. Early Voting Period in Georgia: Lasts for three weeks prior to Election Day; some states have longer periods. Section 3: Voter Turnout by the Numbers Voter Turnout Comparisons: ○ Presidential vs. Midterm Election Years: Generally higher in presidential years.  ○ Federal vs. Local Elections: Typically higher in federal elections. ○ African American Voting Since 2008: Higher than white Americans. ○ Hispanic Voting in Midterm Elections: Tend to vote at lower rates than African Americans. Who Tends to Vote More: ○ Men or Women: Women tend to vote more. ○ Wealthier or Poorer Americans: Wealthier Americans tend to vote more. ○ Younger or Older Americans: Older Americans tend to vote more. ○ Highly Educated or Less-Educated Americans: Highly educated Americans tend to vote more. Section 4: Does Nonvoting Matter? Vocabulary: ○ Epistocracy: A system of governance in which knowledge and expertise are considered for participation in politics. ○ Compulsory Voting: Laws requiring eligible citizens to vote. Jason Brennan’s Arguments: Suggests that less informed voters might harm the electoral process and should be discouraged from voting. Encouragement of Voting: Advocates argue every voice matters in a democracy, regardless of knowledge. "Not at the Table, On the Menu": Highlights the importance of participation in governance; low turnout can lead to policies that do not reflect the interests of all citizens. Government Serving Voters: Evidence suggests governments often prioritize the interests of voters over non-voters. Section 5: Factors Influencing Voter Turnout Rates Vocabulary: ○ Rational Choice Model of Voting: Individuals weigh the costs and benefits of voting. ○ Paradox of Voting: The phenomenon where the costs of voting outweigh the expected benefits. ○ C-Term: Costs incurred by the voter (time, effort). ○ D-Term: Direct benefits of voting (impact on outcomes). ○ Resource Model of Voting: Focuses on the resources (time, money, skills) that affect turnout. Rational Choice and the Paradox of Voting: The paradox arises when individuals vote despite knowing their single vote is unlikely to change the outcome. D-Term and C-Term Variables: The D-Term represents the perceived benefits of voting, while the C-Term represents the costs associated with voting. Difference between Rational Choice and Resource Models: The rational choice model emphasizes personal calculations of benefit, while the resource model considers socio-economic factors influencing turnout.  Compulsory Voting Impact: It has been shown to increase voter turnout significantly. Same-Day Registration Impact: This can lead to higher turnout as it simplifies the voting process. Section 6: Political Action Outside the Conventional Political Process Vocabulary: ○ Civil Disobedience: The active refusal to obey certain laws as a form of protest. ○ Strike: Workers refusing to work as a form of protest against their employers. ○ Boycott: A withdrawal from commercial or social relations with a country, organization, or person as a form of protest. Examples of Civil Disobedience: ○ Sit-ins during the Civil Rights Movement. ○ Protests against unjust laws (e.g., anti-war protests). Difference between Strike and Boycott: A strike is labor action against employers; a boycott is consumer action against companies or policies. Martin Luther King Jr.'s Quote: King meant that riots indicate a failure of the democratic system to address grievances, highlighting the need for reform.