POLS 1100 Introduction to American Government Final Exam Study Guide PDF

**POLS 1100 Introduction to American Government Final Exam Study Guide** **Political Science** - Study of power: US Citizens are bound by the core ideals of America. Americans study the political system (power) because the citzens have power in a democracy. - Elitist theory of power:...

**POLS 1100 Introduction to American Government Final Exam Study Guide** **Political Science** - Study of power: US Citizens are bound by the core ideals of America. Americans study the political system (power) because the citzens have power in a democracy. - Elitist theory of power: The notion that wealthy and well-connected individuals exercise power over certain areas of public policy. - Majoritarian theory of power: The idea that the majority prevails not only in elections but also in determining policy. - Pluralist theory of power: A theory of American politics that holds that society's interests are substantially represented through the activities of groups. **Constitutional Democracy** - Social contract theory: A voluntary agreement by individuals to form a government that is then obligated to work within the confines of that agreement. - Popular sovereignty: the concept of a supreme authority or dominant power that has the power to make laws, maintain order, and exercise autonomy - Political equality: the extent to which citizens have an equal voice over governmental decisions. - Locke: all persons are endowed with natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that rulers who fail to protect those rights may be removed by the people, by force if necessary. - Hobbes: His main concern is the problem of social and political order: how human beings can live together in peace and avoid the danger and fear of civil conflict. He poses stark alternatives: we should give our obedience to an unaccountable sovereign (a person or group empowered to decide every social and political issue). - Rousseau: Rousseau claimed that everyone was born free and equal, but societies imposed a sense of ownership over resources and divisions of labour, which caused conflict and social injustice - Constitutional democracy: A government that is constitutional in its provisions for minority rights and rule by law; democratic in its provisions for majority influence through elections; and a republic in its mix of deliberative institutions, which check and balance each other. - Tyranny of the majority: The potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain and to the detriment of minority rights and interests. - Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence states the principles on which our government, and our identity as Americans, are based. Unlike the other founding documents, the Declaration of Independence is not legally binding, but it is powerful. - Federalist Papers: The Federalist Papers were a series of eighty-five essays urging the citizens of New York to ratify the new United States Constitution. THe papers wanted decentralization. - Supremacy/Necessary and Proper Clauses: The Necessary and Proper Clause and the Supremacy Clause are both provisions of the United States Constitution that establish the scope of federal power and the relationship between the federal government and the states **Federalism** - Federalism: A governmental system in which authority is divided between two sovereign levels of government: national and regional. - Enumerated Powers: The 17 powers granted to the national government under Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. These powers include taxation and the regulation of commerce as well as the authority to provide for the national defense. - Implied powers: The federal government's constitutional authority (through the "necessary and proper" clause) to take action that the Constitution does not expressly authorize but that supports actions that are so authorized. - 10th Amendment: The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is a key part of federalism in the US, as it reserves powers to the states and the people that are not given to the federal government - State-centered/nation-centered federalism: The power differences between state and national. - Fiscal federalism: A term that refers to the expenditure of federal funds on programs run in part through states and localities. **Congress** - Article I: Article I of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. It also outlines the powers of Congress and how members are elected. - Impact of decentralized power: Decentralization is a way to enable civil society to participate in the policy process and thus, to increase transparency and predictability of decision making. Local governments are generally better informed about, and more responsive to, the needs and preferences of local populations than central governments. - Perceptions of Congress: Congress is viewed as slow by most americans. - Committee system: The committee system is a central feature of the United States Congress that organizes the legislative process and divides labor among members. - Structure of House and Senate: The house is made up of election representatives based on population and nationally there are 2 senators per state. The chambers have to work together to pass legiasation. - Filibuster: A procedural tactic in the U.S. Senate whereby a minority of legislators prevents a bill from coming to a vote by holding the floor and talking until the majority gives in and the bill is withdrawn from consideration. - Cloture: A parliamentary maneuver that, if a three-fifths majority votes for it, limits Senate debate to 30 hr and has the effect of defeating a filibuster. - Partisan voting: Voting with party group. - Single-member districts: A district represented by 1 officeholder. - Proportional representation: Office seats based on number of votes not by popular vote. - Political leadership of each chamber: The Speaker of the House is voted by the entire house voted on every 2 years. The vice president is the president of the senate. **President/Bureaucracy** - Article II: Article II of the United States Constitution establishes the Executive Branch of the federal government and outlines the powers and duties of the President. It also covers how the President is elected and removed from office. - Evolution of presidential power: The evolution of presidential power in the United States has seen a significant expansion over time, primarily due to factors like national crises, technological advancements, and the president\'s ability to act swiftly during emergencies, leading to a more robust executive role beyond the powers explicitly defined in the Constitution; key aspects include the development of executive privilege, increased use of executive orders, and a larger role in foreign policy. - Popular support and presidential power: The more popular support a president ahs the more he will get done. Congress listens better to a popular president - Honeymoon Period: The president's first months in office, a time when Congress, the press, and the public are more inclined than usual to support presidential initiatives. - Lame duck periods: End of presidency. The press isn't focuses on him, less presidential initiative pass. - Impact of centralized power: Centralized power, where decision-making authority is concentrated in a single governing body or leader, can have a significant impact by creating a strong, unified state, but can also lead to potential downsides like decreased local autonomy, stifled innovation, and potential for abuse of power by the central authority, depending on the context and implementation. - Characteristics of bureaucracy: - **Hierarchy**: A clear structure with defined spheres of competence and divisions of labor  - **Division of labor**: The separation of work processes into tasks performed by different people or groups  - **Impersonality**: Decisions and interactions are based on established rules rather than personal considerations  - **Formal rules**: A set of standard operating procedures and formal written records  - **Continuity**: Administrators have full-time salaries and advance within the structure  - **Professional management**: A strict chain of command and legal authority **Federal Courts** - Article III: Article III of the United States Constitution establishes the judicial branch of the federal government, which includes the Supreme Court and lower courts. It also guarantees the right to a fair trial by a competent judge and a jury of peers for anyone accused of a wrongdoing. - Judicial philosophies - **Judicial activism - **The doctrine that the courts should develop new legal principles when judges see a compelling need, even if this action places them in conflict with precedent or the policy decisions of elected officials. - **Judicial restraint - **The doctrine that the judiciary should broadly defer to precedent and the judgment of legislatures. The doctrine claims that the job of judges is to work within the confines of laws set down by tradition and lawmaking majorities. - **Judicial review - **The power of courts to decide whether a governmental institution has acted within its constitutional powers and, if not, to declare its action null and void. - Writ of Certiorari: Permission granted by a higher court to allow a losing party in a legal case to bring the case before it for a ruling; when such a writ is requested of the U.S. Supreme Court, four of the Court's nine justices must agree to accept the case before it is granted certiorari. - Judicial review: The power of courts to decide whether a governmental institution has acted within its constitutional powers and, if not, to declare its action null and void. - Decisions: A vote of the Supreme Court in a particular case that indicates which party the justices side with and by how large a margin. - Appointed judges/life tenure **Political Socialization/Public Opinion/Participation** - Political Socialization: The learning process by which people acquire their political opinions, beliefs, and values. - Agents of political socialization: Those agents, such as the family and the media, that have significant impact on citizens' political socialization. - Political ideology: A set of ideas, beliefs, values and opinions of social movement or person. - Scientific polling: Typically a random selection of samples trying to make it representative of the whole. - Public opinion: The politically relevant opinions held by ordinary citizens that they express openly. - Forms of political participation: Voting, Grassroots, talking to representatives, attending events, helping a campaign. - Frames of reference: a structure of concepts and views through which we perceive and evaluate information.  **Political Parties/Campaigns/Elections** - Two-party political system: A system in which only two political parties have a real chance of acquiring control of the government. - Election to public office - Caucus: A meeting of people of the same political party voting to select canidates - Primary Election: Voting for who will run in the general. Narrows the party pool. - General election: Voting for the winner. - Political party realignment: Switching of voter preference from one party to another - Political Party dealignment: Voter group leaves to become independent or not vote. - Linkage institution: An institution that serves to connect citizens with government. Linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media. **News Media** - Roles of news media: Signaling, Watchdog, - Agenda setting: The power of the media through news coverage to focus the public's attention and concern on particular events, problems, issues, personalities, and so on. - Issue framing: The process by which the media play up certain aspects of a situation while downplaying other aspects, thereby providing a particular interpretation of the situation. - Yellow journalism: style of journalism that uses sensationalism and exaggeration to grab readers\' attention and increase sales, rather than reporting on facts. Started in late 1800s. - Selective perception: the process of unconsciously selecting and noticing objects in the environment based on existing beliefs, attitudes, and goals - Linkage institution: An institution that serves to connect citizens with government. Linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media **Interest groups** - Interest groups: Any organization that actively seeks to influence public policy. - Inside/outside lobbying - **Inside lobbying - **Direct communication between organized interests and policy makers, which is based on the assumed value of close ("inside") contacts with policy makers. - **Outside lobbying - **A form of lobbying in which an interest group seeks to use public pressure as a means of influencing officials. - Economic Groups: organizations that aim to improve the economic well-being of their members, the industry they represent, or the countries they are a part of - Citizen groups: non-governmental groups formed by individuals who come together around shared interests or causes - Pluralism:a condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority, etc. - Collective good/free rider - Collective Goods: Benefits that are offered by groups (usually citizens' groups) as an incentive for membership but that are nondivisible (such as a clean environment) and therefore are available to nonmembers as well as members of the particular group. - Free-Rider Problem:The situation in which the benefits offered by a group to its members are also available to nonmembers. The incentive to join the group and to promote its cause is reduced because nonmembers (free riders) receive the benefits (e.g., a cleaner environment) without having to pay any of the group's costs. - Linkage institution: An institution that serves to connect citizens with government. Linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media **Civil liberties/Civil rights** - Difference between civil liberties/civil rights: a structure of concepts and views through which we perceive and evaluate information.  - U.S. Bill of Rights: The process by which the media play up certain aspects of a situation while downplaying other aspects, thereby providing a particular interpretation of the situation. - Due process procedures: The clause of the Constitution that has been used by the judiciary to apply the Bill of Rights to the actions of state governments. - Selective incorporation/14th Amendment: The process by which certain of the rights (e.g., freedom of speech) contained in the Bill of Rights become applicable, through the Fourteenth Amendment, to actions by the state governments. - Plessy vs. Ferguson: a landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws in the United States. Equal but separate accommodations for white and colored races. - Brown vs. Board: a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional