Physical Education and Sports Coaching Study Guide PDF

- Or#(studygvde for Physical Education and Sports Coaching Dr D. Lees DEPARTMENT CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PRETORIA O...

- Or#(studygvde for Physical Education and Sports Coaching Dr D. Lees DEPARTMENT CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PRETORIA Open Rubric © 2023 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria PES3701/1/2022–2024 10021272 InDesign Shutterstock images where used. MNB_Style CONTENTS Page OVERVIEW ix LEARNING UNIT 1: THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1.1 DEFINING PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1 1.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 2 1.3 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3 1.3.1 SPORT 3 1.3.2 PLAY 3 1.3.3 RECREATION 3 1.4 THE AIMS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3 1.5 THE VALUE AND PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR LEARNERS4 1.6 CONCLUSION 5 LEARNING UNIT 2: THE HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT AND VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 6 2.1 INTRODUCTION 6 2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGES 6 2.2.1 IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 7 2.2.2 ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS 7 2.2.3 THE MIDDLE AGES 8 2.2.4 FROM THE REFORMATION TO MODERN TIMES 8 2.2.5 THE MODERN ERA 9 2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SPORT IN MODERN TIMES 9 2.4 THE FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICULAR NATURE OF SPORT12 2.5 THE VALUE OF SPORT TO SOCIETY 13 2.5.1 THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF SPORT 13 2.5.2 THE SOCIAL VALUE OF SPORT FOR PEOPLE 14 2.5.3 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT 15 2.5.4 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT 16 2.5.5 THE ETHICAL VALUE OF SPORT 16 2.5.6 SPORT AS A POLITICAL VALUE AND WEAPON FOR SOCIETY AND THE STATE18 2.5.7 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SPORT FOR THE COMMUNITY 19 2.6 CONCLUSION 20 LEARNING UNIT 3: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 22 3.1 INTRODUCTION 22 3.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY 22 3.2.1 CELLS–THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE 22 3.2.2 THE SKELETON 23 3.2.3 BONES 24 3.2.4 JOINTS 24 3.2.5 MUSCLE AND TENDONS 25 3.2.6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 29 3.2.7 THE HEART AND LUNGS (THE CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM) 29 3.2.8 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 30 3.2.9 POSTURE 32 3.3 CONCLUSION 35 LEARNING UNIT 4: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 36 4.1 INTRODUCTION 36 4.2 ASPECTS OF GROWTH DEVELOPMENT 37 (iii) PES3701/1/2021  4.2.1 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 38 4.2.2 SKELETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 41 4.2.3 MUSCULAR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 41 4.2.4 CARDIO-RESPIRATORY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 41 4.3 LEARNERS AND EXERCISE 42 4.3.1 THE SIX PHASES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 42 4.4 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD 44 4.4.1 SELF-IMAGE 44 4.5 MODIFYING SPORT TO SUIT CHILDREN 47 4.5.1 BASKETBALL 47 4.5.2 SOCCER 48 4.6 CONCLUSION 49 LEARNING UNIT 5: TEACHING LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 50 5.1 INTRODUCTION 50 5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF MOVEMENT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 51 5.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 53 5.3.1 MEDICATION 54 5.4 SENSORY DISABILITIES 54 5.4.1 DEAF AND HEARING IMPAIRED 54 5.4.2 BLIND AND VISUALLY IMPAIRED 54 5.5 INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 55 5.6 PHYSICAL DISABILITIES 55 5.6.1 AMPUTEES 56 5.6.2 LEARNERS USING WHEELCHAIRS 56 5.6.3 CEREBRAL-PALSIED LEARNERS 57 5.7 TEACHING LEARNERS WITH HEALTH-RELATED CONDITIONS 58 5.7.1 LEARNERS WITH EPILEPSY 58 5.7.2 LEARNERS WITH ASTHMA 59 5.7.3 LEARNERS WITH DIABETES 59 5.7.4 LEARNERS WITH HEART DISEASE 59 5.8 SETTING UP A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME 60 5.9 CONCLUSION 61 LEARNING UNIT 6: TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION 62 6.1 INTRODUCTION 62 6.2 DEVELOPMENT LEVELS 62 6.3 DEVELOPING A YEARLY PROGRAMME 64 6.4 ORGANISATIONAL DETAILS 66 6.5 EFFECTIVE CLASS ORGANISATION 66 6.6 FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 66 6.7 CONCLUSION 67 LEARNING UNIT 7: NUTRITION AND FLUID REPLACEMENT IN SPORT 68 7.1 INTRODUCTION 68 7.2 CALORIES 69 7.3 THE ENERGY BALANCE 69 7.4 NUTRIENTS 70 7.4.1 PROTEINS 70 7.4.2 CARBOHYDRATES 70 7.4.3 FAT 71 7.4.4 VITAMINS 71 7.4.5 MINERALS 72 7.4.6 WATER 73 iv  7.4.7 FIBRE 73 7.5 THE NUTRIENT BALANCE 73 7.5.1 RECOMMENDED HIGH PERFORMANCE DIET 73 7.5.2 WEIGHT CONTROL 73 7.6 A BALANCED DIET 73 7.7 NUTRITIONAL NEGLECT 74 7.7.1 PLANNING FOR NUTRITION AT SPORTS EVENTS 74 7.8 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 75 7.8.1 PRE-COMPETITION NUTRITION: EATING TO WIN 76 7.9 FLUID REPLACEMENT IN SPORT 76 7.10 CONCLUSION 77 LEARNING UNIT 8: DRUGS IN SPORT 78 8.1 INTRODUCTION 78 8.2 REASONS WHY ATHLETES TAKE DRUGS 79 8.3 WHICH DRUGS DO SPORTS PLAYERS TAKE? 80 8.3.1 STIMULANTS 80 8.3.2 NARCOTIC ANALGESICS 80 8.3.3 ANABOLIC STEROIDS 80 8.3.4 DIURETICS 81 8.3.5 SOCIAL DRUGS 81 8.4 WHAT IS THE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM? 82 8.4.1 TESTING AND CONTROLS 82 8.4.2 PUNISHMENT 82 8.4.3 EDUCATION 82 8.5 CONCLUSION 83 LEARNING UNIT 9: SPORTS INJURIES 84 9.1 INTRODUCTION 84 9.2 PREVENTION OF INJURIES 85 9.3 INJURY MANAGEMENT 87 9.4 WORKING WITH INJURED ATHLETES 88 9.5 CONCLUSION 94 LEARNING UNIT 10: LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS COACHING 95 10.1 INTRODUCTION 95 10.2 LEGAL LIABILITY 96 10.3 ELEMENTS OF NEGLIGENCE 96 10.4 WHERE NEGLIGENCE MAY OCCUR 96 10.5 COMMON SOURCES OF NEGLIGENCE 97 10.6 CONSENT TO THE RISK OF HARM 97 10.7 LIABILITY INSURANCE 97 10.8 CONCLUSION 100 LEARNING UNIT 11: CODES OF BEHAVIOUR 101 11.1 INTRODUCTION 101 11.2 EDUCATORS CODE OF BEHAVIOUR 101 11.3 CONCLUSION 102 LEARNING UNIT 12: POLICIES FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 103 12.1 INTRODUCTION 103 12.2 TEACHING STRATEGIES 103 12.2.1 INDIVIDUALISED AND PERSONALISED LEARNING 103 12.2.2 STYLES OF TEACHING 104 v PES3701/ 1  12.2.3 TECHNIQUES OF GOOD TEACHING 104 12.3 DESIGNING INTRAMURAL PROGRAMMES 104 12.3.1 GUIDELINES 105 12.3.2 PARTICIPATION SCHEDULES 105 12.3.3 SUPERVISION OF PROGRAMME 105 12.3.4 WAYS TO GROUP LEARNERS 105 12.3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 105 12.3.6 TYPES OF TOURNAMENTS 106 12.4 CONCLUSION 106 LEARNING UNIT 13: INCORPORATING PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE EDUCATION PROGRAMME 107 13.1 INTRODUCTION 107 13.2 INTEGRATION 107 13.3 ADAPTING PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITIES TO THE CLASSROOM 108 13.4 CONCLUSION 109 LEARNING UNIT 14: EVALUATION AS PART OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 110 14.1 INTRODUCTION 110 14.2 EVALUATION PROCESSES 110 14.3 EVALUATION OF LEARNERS 111 14.3.1 CHECK LIST AND RATING SCALES 111 14.4 PHYSICAL EDUCATION TESTING 111 14.4.1 GROWTH 111 14.4.2 HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS 112 14.4.3 MOVEMENT SKILLS 112 14.4.4 KNOWLEDGE 113 14.4.5 AFFECTIVE MEASURES 113 14.5 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS 113 14.5.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 113 14.5.2 EVALUATING OUTCOMES 113 14.5.3 GRADING 114 14.6 CONCLUSION 114 LEARNING UNIT 15: THE PHILOSOPHY OF COACHING AND THE ROLE OF THE COACH 116 15.1 INTRODUCTION 116 15.2 HOW WELL DO I KNOW MYSELF? 116 15.3 WHAT DO I WANT TO ACHIEVE AS A COACH? 118 15.4 WHY DO I COACH OR WHY DO I WANT TO COACH? 118 15.5 WHAT OUTCOMES DO PEOPLE EXPECT FROM SPORT? 118 15.6 THE ROLES OF THE COACH 119 15.7 THE VARIOUS COACHING STYLES 119 15.7.1 AUTHORITARIAN 120 15.7.2 COOPERATIVE 120 15.7.3 CASUAL 120 15.8 THE RESPECTED COACH 121 15.9 THE COACH S SKILLS 121 15.10 SETTING GOALS FOR YOUR SPORT PROGRAMME 122 15.11 WORKING WITH OTHERS 123 15.11.1 ADMINISTRATORS 123 15.11.2 REFEREES/UMPIRES/JUDGES 123 15.11.3 PARENTS 124 15.11.4 PLAYERS/ATHLETES 124 15.12 CONCLUSION 126 LEARNING UNIT 16: TRAINING THEORY 127 vi  16.1 INTRODUCTION 127 16.2 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING 127 16.3 FITNESS 128 16.4 TRAINING 130 16.5 DEVELOPING PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES 136 16.6 PLANNING THE TRAINING SESSION 141 16.6.1 PERIODISATION 141 16.6.2 PLANNING THE SESSION AND THE TRAINING WEEK 143 16.7 PRINCIPLES FOR STRUCTURING PRACTICE 150 16.8 ORGANISING A TRAINING SESSION 151 16.9 CONCLUSION 152 LEARNING UNIT 17: TEACHING SKILLS 154 17.1 INTRODUCTION 154 17.2 DETERMINATION OF CHILDREN S MOVEMENT 154 17.3 CHILDREN S BASIC MOVEMENTS 155 17.4 HOW TO HELP CHILDREN LEARN 156 17.5 METHODS OF TEACHING SIMPLE SKILLS 158 17.6 METHODS OF TEACHING COMPLEX SKILLS 159 17.7 PLANNING A SKILL UNIT 160 17.8 CONCLUSION 162 LEARNING UNIT 18: SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 163 18.1 INTRODUCTION 163 18.2 MENTAL PREPARATION AND SKILLS 163 18.3 PERSONALITY 165 18.4 MOTIVATION 165 18.5 GOAL SETTING 166 18.6 EMOTIONAL CONTROL 167 18.7 DEALING WITH WINNING AND LOSING 168 18.8 CONCLUSION 169 LEARNING UNIT 19: TEAM MANAGEMENT AND STRESS MANAGEMENT 170 19.1 INTRODUCTION 170 19.2 PRESEASON MANAGEMENT 170 19.3 IN-SEASON MANAGEMENT 171 19.4 POSTSEASON MANAGEMENT 171 19.5 MANAGING RELATIONSHIPS 171 19.6 STRESS MANAGEMENT 172 19.7 TIME MANAGEMENT 173 19.8 HEALTH MANAGEMENT 173 19.9 CONCLUSION 174 LEARNING UNIT 20: PARENT, COMMUNITY AND MEDIA INVOLVEMENT 175 20.1 INTRODUCTION 175 20.2 DEVELOPING BETTER SCHOOL-COMMUNITY LINKAGES 175 20.3 A PARENT ORIENTATION PROGRAMME 177 20.4 CONTACTING THE MEDIA 180 20.5 CONCLUSION 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 NOTES 185 vii PES3701/ 1 viii OVERVIEW Physical education is an integral part of the total education process. It aims to develop learners as physically, mentally, emotionally and socially competent citizens through the medium of physical activities. These activities have to be specially selected to produce these outcomes. Physical education makes a special contribution to developing attitudes, norms, knowledge, skills, habits and abilities that help learners become mature, productive, happy and responsible adults. Coaching sport is a specific craft that is best learnt by practical experience, developing effective about relationships with coaching colleagues, sportsmen and women, and through application of knowledge. Knowledge about coaching is the foundation for the beginner coach or for the already practicing coach who seeks improvement. The information that we provide in the following units will not make you a coach, but it does provide a basis for sound coaching practice. The main focus in this course is: WHAT DO YOU AS A COACH HAVE TO KNOW? We are going to address various coaching related aspects in this course to answer this question. 1 COURSE PRESENTATION The study guide offers a number of features designed to help you easily grasp and understand the material provided. This guide consists of study units. We have arranged these study units into manageable study sessions that should help you to understand the content. Each study unit contains objectives and evaluation exercises that you need to master for examination purposes. 2 THE USE OF ICONS We often use the following icons to draw your attention to certain points. Familiarise yourself with them and their meanings. Did you know. This icon means that we want you to think about something. It may indicate a simple question. (Try to answer the question before you read any further.) ix PES3701/ 1  Learning outcomes. This icon highlights the outcome or what you should be able to do when you have completed the study unit. Read. This icon means that you must take special note of something. It may be an instruction to read a certain passage in a recommended book. Activity. This icon means complete a written activity. We may ask you to answer a question, compile a table or draw a diagram. NB NB/Take note. This icon means that you must take special note of something. x STUDY UNIT 1 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Why does the subject of physical education exist at all? Children love to run and move for sheer enjoyment. In play they display an endless reserve of energy which constantly amazes adults. Human beings are designed for a variety of motor responses using large and small muscles. Learners should be made aware of the satisfaction that they can derive from physical activity at a very early age. All learning is expressed in some form of motor response. Machines and modern technology have taken over most physical labour tasks formerly carried out by human beings, diminishing the primitive skills that we have required for survival. Therefore opportunities for the natural development of motor skills have been greatly limited. Children do not climb trees, ride bicycles or jump puddles and streams as much as they did in earlier times. This is a major reason why we must see physical education as a major component of the school curriculum. It forms a necessary segment of the total learning process. Physical education is concerned with growth, development and proper physical maintenance throughout life. Each learner should have the opportunity for the optimum growth he or she is capable of, physically, mentally and emotionally. Other elements related to a well-developed physical education programme are self- confidence, safe use of apparatus and playground equipment, self -control, psychological development, learning to follow rules, a good nutrition programme and ways to cope with emotional stress. 1.1.1 DEFINING PHYSICAL EDUCATION Physical education is one of the most ancient arts of the humanities. The very first physical educator was the father who taught his sons how to hunt, provide food and 1 PES3701/ 1 build shelters, and engaged them in various physical tasks round the family home. Physical education has a unique but not exclusive role to play in the education of learners. Its role is twofold–to enhance learners’ physical fitness and well-being and to teach them a wide variety of motor skills. Physical education can and must contribute to the shared goals of education through its activities and experience. This means improving self- direction, self-esteem and cooperative behaviour. 2 Physical educators are interested in all human movement. They should work toward making physical education an enjoyable and satisfying experience for every learner. To do this all learners must have the chance of some success every time they are involved in a movement experience. Learning outcomes When you have worked through this study guide you will be able to: define physical education list the aims of physical education explain the value of physical education for learners 1.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Many researchers have tried to define the term physical education’’. This has not been an easy task! At the beginning of the 19th century the terms sport’’ and physical education’’ meant the same thing. Changes came after World War I, with the introduction of cooperative games and extracurricular games days’’ at schools; in Britain sports activities were introduced in schools during the mid-1900s. Physical education in schools eventually spread all over the world. Physical education, like all subjects in the school curriculum, mainly concerns itself with the general education of learners and their development towards maturity. Physical education is a programme in which skills used in sport, dance and exercise are taught and practised. This programme in the total process of education focuses on developing and utilising the individual’s voluntary, purposeful movement capabilities and directly relate d mental, emotional and social responses. The physical education school programme takes place in a specialised learning environment. It incorporates many planned conditions and stimuli specifically intended to encourage or provide opportunities for physical, social, emotional and intellectual responses through which the learner may be changed, modified or educated in desirable ways. The quality of physical education learning outcomes in any school depends on the responses and attitudes induced in learners. Physical education is concerned with growth, development and proper maintenance throughout life. To summarise, physical education is a method of education, a method of educating the youth through experience acquired during motor activities, and a way of teaching about their bodies and their physical potential. 3 PES3701/ 1 In your own words, how would you define physical education? 4 1.3 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION To understand the relationship between physical education and its various activities you have to distinguish between various terms. 1.3.1 SPORT Sport is international: most nations all over the world practise sport. It is practised in various forms, from recreation sport to highly competitive sport. As a human activity, sport involves specific administrative organisation and its rules have a historical background. It involves competition or challenge and an outcome primarily determined by physical skill. Sport is characterised by certain rules, common goals, the formation of two teams (or participation of an individual) who compete against each other to win, by giving their best possible performance. 1.3.2 PLAY The word play’’ is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word plega meaning a game or sport, fight or battle. It entails an enjoyable activity that individuals engage in for its own sake, in a free and spontaneous way. Play is far less structured than sport. Play is an enjoyable experience which is derived from behaviour which is self-initiated in accordance with personal goals or expressive impulses. Its rules are spontaneous; it has a temporal sequence but no predetermined ending. Play is a biological and cultural function that is indispensable to the development of the young learner. It is a natural activity for all learners. 1.3.3 RECREATION The word recreation’’ is derived from the Latin word recreare which means to invigorate’’ or to renew’’. People’s activities during their leisure or free time are classified as recreation. These are all voluntary activities and can range from hiking, swimming, skiing, reading or sewing to just watching television. Recreation is unlike work in that it is not compulsory or obligatory. Recreational activities are beneficial to the participant because the satisfaction gained is primarily from the quality of the experience. 1.4 THE AIMS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Organised physical education programmes aim to create an environment that 5 PES3701/ 1 stimulates selected movement experiences, encouraging optimal development of all phases of the individual’s life. The aim generally states the purpose and forms the basis of objectives. We can define the objectives of physical education as follows: 6 (The remarks in brackets refer to points highlighted by Kirchner [1992:7 -10].) 1. To develop the movement potentialities of each individual to an optimal level. We emphasise developing selected neuromuscular skills and refining fundamental movement patterns of these specific skills. The physical educator should begin with the fundamental motor skills, which lead to specific sport skills, and then finally emphasise lifetime sports. (Kirchner refers to body management and usef ul physical skills.) 2. To develop a basic understanding and appreciation of human movement. We should create an appreciation of movement as an essential nonverbal human expression. Physical education also helps individuals to develop a positive self- concept and body image through appropriate movement experiences. (Kirchner refers to understanding and appreciation of human movement.) 3. To develop skills, knowledge and attitudes, basic to voluntary participation in satisfying and enjoyable physical recreation ex periences. Instructors should teach learners the importance of physical education. (Kirchner refers to the fostering of intellectual growth and creative talent.) 4. To develop personally rewarding and socially acceptable behaviours through participation in enjoyable movement activities. Normal mental, physical and emotional health is enhanced by participation in voluntary physical recreation. (Kirchner refers to self-image.) 5. To develop and maintain optimal individual muscular strength, muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance. In this case we refer to health-related physical fitness. It involves stability, flexibility, balance, agility and power. (Kirchner refers to personal and social development, growth and development, and physical fitness and health.) 1.5 THE VALUE AND PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR LEARNERS Have you considered the value of physical education for learners? As a physical educator you must focus on the value of physical education. Physical education holds various values for the learner. Participating in physical activities gives learners a means of self-expression. They develop awareness of their bodies and the space around them by participating in physical activity, in other words by learning about: 7 PES3701/ 1  shapes the body can make (twisted, wide and narrow, balancing, transferring of body weight, and flight [balance] of the body through the air) where the body moves (direction, pathways and levels) how the body moves (speed, force and flow) 8 They learn to explore the environment and express their feelings through creative movement. Physical activities help to reduce tension and promote relaxation. Learners become aware of how to reduce muscular tension themselves and realise the value of rest and sleep. Learners understand the value of socialising better when we offer them a variety of activities. They learn why children play together, how they play together, when they play together and where they play together. They learn to be contributing group members (to listen to and follow directions, and to cooperate). They also learn to be courteous and thoughtful toward their playmates and peers. You must also teach them to be good sports’’. Physical activities provide learners with the opportunity to develop physically. Developing physical fitness means improving muscle strength, endurance and flexibility, and skills and abilities. A well-planned education programme leads to understanding of how to play games and sports. Learners get to know the terminology, rules and regulations of each game. They get to know the various objectives and strategies of the activity presented. This process aids cognitive development. If you allow learners to design their own games, they develop their creative abilities. Successful performance in a variety of game situations teaches the learner to enjoy physical activities. Learners develop more positive attitudes if they achieve success in any assigned task. They then learn to relax and enjoy participation. Continued participation in sport and games after school is an important outcome of the physical education programme. The learner may also acquire an enjoyment of games and sports as a spectator and appreciate high-level athletic performance. Well-managed physical education programmes are an opportunity for you to teach a learner the meaning of being sporting, or of being a good sport. Learners can be taught the ability (1) to cooperate and take turns, and (2) to win and lose gracefully. You can also teach them to respect the differences in their opponents’ abilities. This respect enhances an individual’s development and maturity. It can also help learners develop emotional self- control in times of physical and mental stress. However, being a good sport’’ is not inherent in physical education activities; therefore, because it is not learnt automatically, you need to actively encourage learners to develop a sporting spirit. 1.6 CONCLUSION Now you should have an idea of the value of physical education. Later, in study unit 4, we will focus more on the value of physical education for the learner in the 9 PES3701/ 1 various stages of development. 10 STUDY UNIT 2 THE HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT AND VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 2.1 INTRODUCTION The previous study unit focused on the philosophy, objectives and values of physical education. Have you considered the value of physical education for learners? Sport and physical education have developed side by side. We can give reasons why physical education and sport should form part of the educational curriculum by studying the history of sport and physical education (movement education). A study of history also provides you with cultural insight and an analysis of a society. You should gain insight into how sport and physical education have developed to their present status and the various changes that have occurred over the centuries. Not all societies practise sport and physical education in the same way. Each society attaches different importance to physical education and sport and therefore has a different approach. Learning outcomes When you have worked through this study guide you will be able to: discuss the development of sport and physical education through the ages explain the link between sort, physical education and education list various factors that influence the state of sport and physical education today explain the value of sport 11 PES3701/ 1 2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGES First we shall look very briefly at the various periods of development. 12 2.2.1 IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY To seek the origins of physical education, we have to go as far back in time as we can to examine the actions of primitive human beings. At that time, we shall assume that there was very little organised education, as we know it. Education was a by-product of daily experiences and activities and of religious and social ceremonies. People spent their daylight hours making bows, arrows, spears, knives, utensils, carrying burdens, building huts and constructing boats. Another activity was the daily search for food. People climbed trees in search of fruit and nuts. They went hunting. The various methods they used to acquire food developed a superior physique. The parents were the first physical educators because they taught their children survival skills. Dancing was a profoundly religious activity. Tribal groups engaged in war dances, which were often linked to the exorcising of evil spirits. Most of the childhood years were spent outdoors. Children learnt many games (tag, hide-and-seek and a variety of ball games). They had a natural urge to play games and kept themselves busy in creative ways. Life was lived in a physical manner. The fundamental elements of a physical education programme were established during this period and have continued unchallenged to this day. What is the difference between sport in primitive society and sport today? 2.2.2 ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS How would you characterise the physical education and sport of ancient civilisations? We note the contributions of the Romans and the Greeks during this period. Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, described leisure as a productive part of life through which the highest good attainable by human action could be achieved. The games played were based on mythology and religious beliefs. The Greeks believed strongly that physical education assisted the development of the mind, body and soul. Their concepts and practices were to have a significant 13 PES3701/ 1 and lasting impact on physical education theories, programmes and practices around the world. The Romans focused on tolerance, a desire for peace, a sense of duty and a sense of personal worth. Their education system was directed to a military goal, focusing on manly conduct with considerable attention to physical ability. The first Ancient Games were held in 776 BCE. Modern sport activities practised then were boxing, wrestling, archery and acrobatics. These early games were later known as the Olympic Games. 14 The goal of physical education was established during this period. Aristotle and Plato, another noted Greek philosopher, both believed that physical education contributed to children’s intellectual development. Plato emphasised the moral value of physical education. Education focused on developing the ideal athlete who was seen to embody physical beauty, peak condition, irresistible strength, daring and rivalry. Sport was also intended to prepare citizens for war. 2.2.3 THE MIDDLE AGES What was sport and physical education like in the Middle Ages? During the Middle Ages, sport and all its' facets came under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The attainment of Christian morals was the primary ideal of education. The religious activities of the church dominated the choice of recreation activities. Physical games and contests did not feature, because religious activities took preference. With the rise of the feudal system, however, men had to be trained as knights. They were trained in activities such as horsemanship, fighting on horseback and other areas of self- defence, archery, use of the crossbow, swimming and wrestling. Physical education was the main element of knights’ training. The dramatic development of sport in England during this period was to have a significant influence on physical education across the world. 2.2.4 FROM THE REFORMATION TO MODERN TIMES What do you know about sport and physical education during the Reformation? The Reformation in 16th century Europe occurred during the period of the Renaissance, which lasted an indefinite number of years between the Middle Ages and modern times. The Renaissance was a time of discovery and of rediscovery, marked by dramatic technological development (eg the invention of 15 PES3701/ 1 the printing press). As a result people had more time for leisure and sport took on a useful social role. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of sport at all levels of society, which paved the way for the modern Olympic Games, also called the Olympics. The founder of the Olympics, Pierre de Courbertin, was deeply interested in promoting the educational value of sport. 16 In Europe sport was now part of daily life. The various developments in the technical, economic, political, social and recreational fields encouraged the need for sport. (The Greek ideal of the harmonious development of the mind and the body had regai ned popularity during the Reformation.) Fencing, dancing, archery, bowling and tennis were some of the popular activities during the 18th and 19th centuries. Women and girls were encouraged to take part in physical education, but only watched sporting games. Activity Now that you have studied the previous text, explain why you think there was a need for sport from the period of the Reformation up to modern times. 2.2.5 THE MODERN ERA How is sport during the modern era best depicted? During the modern era sport has been characterised by the increasing number of clubs and organisations round the world. Sport is taken seriously, as shown by numerous outlets and opportunities for sporting activity. Sport is seen as a means of education. Many changes have taken place in sport. Sport is used as a tool for changing behaviour, adapting character, building unity and cooperation in a diverse population, and as a tool for creating national loyalty. Sports coaching has become more and more specialised. 2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SPORT IN MODERN TIMES The following have been significant influences on the development of sport since the beginning of the 19th century: Secularism. Sport is far less linked to religious beliefs and religious rituals than it was in earlier times. Material values play a more important role. Equality for all. Now there is a need for all to take part in sport. Men and women and people of all classes have equal opportunities to participate. Specialisation. Increasingly specialised sporting equipment and training methods are being introduced. Athletes start to specialise at a very early age. Rationalisation and rules. Sport is controlled and regulated by rules and strategies. Unfortunately children’s games are dominated by the rules for 17 PES3701/ 1  adults. Bureaucratisation. Modern sport has become a complex structure with formal organisations at three levels: national, regional and local. Qualifications. Measurements and statistics are common aspects related to modern sport. All events are recorded according to time, distance and score. 18  Records. Considerable emphasis is placed on setting up and breaking records. The over–emphasis on winning has caused many athletes to stop participating at an early age. Other factors with a major influence on the development of sport and physical education are: 1. The rapid and widespread development of technology. Machines have taken over human work to such as extent that people have more free time. Human beings have become less active, so there is a growing need for physical activity. Children spend more time indoors, playing on computers and watching television. Bad posture and physical defects are becoming more common. 2. Long working hours. In various countries the poor economy has forced many parents to take up a second job to keep food on the table. Less time is available for sport. Parents spend less time playing games and teaching their children basic physical skills. 3. The school timetable. Schools have to cram in a great number of subjects. Unfortunately physical education is often the first subject to be left out, which impedes the total development of the learner. The heavy workload of educators makes it difficult for them to coach sport in the afternoons. Moreover, because many educators lack the basic skills and knowledge, their coaching may do more harm than good. There is also a lack of sports equipment. 4. Community and club involvement. Basic training to develop community and club involvement in sport is lacking. Not all countries have the finances to provide centres, programmes and personnel to train the community to get involved in sport. 5. The use of drugs in sport. The need to achieve gold (at the Olympics) has lured many athletes into finding other ways to improve performance. Performance- enhancing drugs are prohibited; their use has led to many deaths. All physical education programmes must explain the risks of drug abuse. 6. The Development of media technology. Technology has expanded to such an extent that now billions of people can watch the greatest sporting event: the Olympic Games. As a result many have been inspired to take up sport. Written sports reports also attract billions of readers. 7. Material values. Money has come to play an ever more important role in sport, with both advantages and disadvantages. Better financing has made it possible to develop better equipment, centres, sports products, opportunities for setting up training programmes and development programmes, and to obtain better resources and training personnel. Athletes are now paid for their performances. A disadvantage is that the drive to earn more in sport has 19 PES3701/ 1  caused athletes, trainers and administrators to forget the enjoyment of sport. The changes in physical demands and human needs during modern times have influenced sport and physical education. Take a look at the following information: Middle 19th century – Sport and physical education has a medical orientation. – Both are regarded as very important during the period of the Reformation. 20  Late 19th century – The accent is on the physical body. – Physical preparedness becomes desirable. – The body is seen as a machine. – The physical educator is considered a biological engineer. – Physical training is considered to be important. Early 20th century – The parts of the body are clinically studied. – Hygiene is important. – Physical education becomes a matter of formal education. – Education through the body gains popularity. Middle 20th century – Healthy diet becomes fashionable. – Health clubs and health farms become widespread. – Businesses take an interest in their employees’ fitness. – Weight control and methods of weight loss become popular. – Various strategies are developed to combat instant stress, such as aromatherapy, massage, and calming remedies and tonics. – Physical education at school level reaches a low, because of an inability to reach goals. – New Age ideas gain popularity. – Sports people seek to enhance performance (use of steroids). Late 20th century – People feel guilty about their bodies, appearance and diet, etcetera. – The media promote the importance of social surroundings and fitness. – People are living longer. – Promotion of recreational activities takes off. – Quality of life becomes more and more important. – Adventurous sports innovations are on the increase. Before continuing think about the following questions: What other factors can you identify as major influences on development of sport? What are the implications for the physical educator? The status of physical education is directly influenced by these previously mentioned factors: what happens in sport determines the status of physical education. The need to win at all costs has placed more emphasis on early specialisation. 21 PES3701/ 1 Sport has gained more attention at a time when the focus should be on improving physical education. Physical education has to do with improving the skills that can then be practised and used in sport. However the physical education lesson is used to coach a sport, instead of teaching th ese important basic skills. Can you think of other implications? 22 2.4 THE FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICULAR NATURE OF SPORT What do you regard as the particular nature of sport? Games and sports have evolved because human beings are active, playful beings. Sport is a human phenomenon. Children, adults and the elderly can all take part in some sort of sport. Sport promotes worthwhile and good relationships, good sporting qualities, endurance and other fine qualities. However, sport can also promote corruption, violate individual dignity and create false heroes, for example. The original meaning of sport has undergone a change in emphasis. Today sport is associated with practising, competition, specialisation, coaching, administration and champions. Sport is now a significant component of societies and cultures across the world: it has become a global phenomenon. The important effects of sport can no longer escape the attention of educators, economists, politicians, sociologists and psychologists. It is a powerful social force with wide application in our adult community and in education; it has become a matter of common interest and immense public appeal. Of all organised activities, sport probably has the greatest impact on society. We can summarise the particular nature of sport as follows: 1. Sport is universal and enjoys worldwide recognition. Sport plays a significant role in the lives of millions of people throughout the world. Many men and women participate regularly in sport and still more are spectators, fans, critics and occasional participants. 2. Playing games is a prominent part of sport. The desire to play games has fulfilled an inborn need since primitive and prehistoric times. 3. Sport captures the attention of billions of people. The wide reach of the mass media means millions across the world can follow international sporting events. Every four years 183 countries get together for the greatest spectacle on earth, the Olympics. An estimated 4,5-billion people watched television during the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games. 4. Sport is a distinctly human activity. Since prehistoric times human beings have engaged in sporting activities. Sport and physical activities have served to develop skills, physical exercises, techniques for hunting, as a socialising technique, and they have reinforced cultural norms and values. 23 PES3701/ 1 5. The concept of sport is very complex. For example it provides entertainment, compensates for social problems, enhances prestige, and relieves stress and other problems. Sport has its own integral system and tasks. 6. Sport contributes to building human character. Sport benefits the biological and psychological development and the personality of a human being. 24 7. Sport is a socialising force. It lends itself to being a socialising force in the community and society at large, irrespective of whether people participate as individuals or members of a team. Participants are never alone because somehow they always represent the community. 8. Sport represents a particular method of expression within different cultures. It gives a nation its heroes, its most accessible myths and rituals. 9. Sport contains an element of competition. Human beings have always needed to defend themselves, their groups and tribes–and later their nations. In times of fear they learnt to escape danger by running, jumping and swimming. Human beings invented archery, judo and karate to avoid defeat by enemies. Human beings have also developed the need to compete against their own bodies and energy limits, and their surroundings. 2.5 THE VALUE OF SPORT TO SOCIETY Sport reflects important values within a society. It is a microcosm of society. The nature, organisation, goals, functions and structure of sport reflect the society in which sport takes place. Its primary function is to disseminate and reinforce the values regulating behav iour and goal attainment, and it helps to determine acceptable solutions to problems in the secular sphere of life. Sport also affects and helps to regulate perceptions of life in general. It makes a particular contribution to education, constructive recreation, national fitness, youth preparedness, international prestige and communication. Sport has a special place in the very centre of the community. It provided an antidote during the industrial era and has become a very important element in the life of every individual, irrespective of race, tradition, climate and preference. Sport is a social institution that transmits values to participants. Sport contributes to society; elements of society such as the family, community and nation, and education itself, are all closely involved. In ancient Greece education included physical development because its' ideal was to develop the total person, striving to balance body, mind and soul. Today we have returned to the same ideal (in spite of tendencies to use sport as preparation for war and to emphasise intellectual development). Today the emphasis is again placed on the value of sport for the total person. We will now look at an explanation of the most important values of sport for human beings. 2.5.1 THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF SPORT 25 PES3701/ 1 Does sport have an educational value? 26 Sport is an integral part of many lives. Physical education provides an opportunity to take part in sport and exercises within the education system. We should guide the learner to self-confidence within this working sphere. We should provide opportunities for learners to develop their body power, suppleness and endurance. There is also a need to create enjoyment for the learner. A playful atmosphere is a relaxed opportunity for educator and learner to communicate, for a learner to open up. Sport teaches young learners valuable lessons about life and society in general. Sport is an instrument in the hands of education that helps to develop characters and personalities. Diem (1960:7) states that the educational value of sport is governed by i ts own laws. He describes the essential educational value of sport as follows: Sport was created out of the instinct of modern man, out of the spiritual interests of our time, out of the appreciation of the measurable, the increasable, and the speed of our modern life. In its obedience to the needs of the body, in its encouragement of the mind in governing the body, and in its own peculiar social life lies its essential educational value. The educational value of sport rests on the possibility of transferring qualities such as honesty, fairness and self-discipline. 2.5.2 THE SOCIAL VALUE OF SPORT FOR PEOPLE How do human beings benefit socially from sport? People are naturally communal beings with a strong desire to be part of a group. Social grouping has more influence on people than the family, education i nstitutions, coaches and mass communication methods. People’s thinking is influenced by the attitudes and actions of their particular society. Sport is an activity that attracts community involvement. Play and sport can fulfil human beings’ inherent need for group membership and identification. Sport enables individuals and groups to mix freely with others across a broad spectrum. Sport integrates members into society and strengthens the social relations necessary for people to be able to work together. It helps people build a sense of togetherness. Sport as a fundamental human need Sport is a vital force that influences our lives. It is the heritage of all human living and 27 PES3701/ 1 provides enjoyment in and for life. Sport is enjoyable in its manifold forms. Children spend many hours playing games and they view games differently to adults. Play is therefore an important part of childhood for two reasons: – It promotes and enhances growth, experience and knowledge. – It allows children to lose themselves in games and enjoy their activities. 28  Sport and its other contributions to society The benefits of sport for society are the promotion of health and other social improvements. Without a doubt, sport and physical activity are central to the life of the whole community. Many countries round the world have adopted a sport for all’’ strategy for this very reason. Sport offers the community the basis for national identity and national competence. The former USSR used sport as a tool to bring about social change. After the Russ ian Revolution, the state used sport to improve health and uplift morality, promote fitness and discipline in the army, and provide a source of recreation to a society experiencing rapid changes and sacrifices. Sport can be used to counter juvenile delinquency. Young people today need benchmarks for right and wrong conduct; when sports activities attract their attention and energy they are less likely to engage in antisocial activities–and sport is also an opportunity for self- expression. Sport helps to develop individual traits and fosters growth and development of social relationships. Further it promotes a range of values: respect for the rules of the game, honest play, courage, unselfishness, respect for the group, sporting spirit and leadership. Many countries support mass participation because sport supports national solidarity. Sports activities among national groups can go a long way to resolving conflict or relieving religious or political tension, for example. It is important to note that the state, community, church, private sector, school and family are all involved in sport. 2.5.3 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT What are the psychological benefits of sport? Sport promotes the following three values relating to psychological development: 1. a spirit of cooperation in the playing of a team sport 2. free participation among individuals and groups 3. submission to authority and discipline of the law (abiding by the rules of the game) It is the task of the coach and the learner to arrange sporting activities that develop learners’ self-confidence. Many coaches are unaware of sport’s 29 PES3701/ 1 psychological value for personality development. Mass participation has a major influence on people as groups and as individuals, and public attendance of sport events is generally a lively and entertaining experience–unless spectators get out of hand and aggressive. Mass sporting events sometimes give rise to irresponsible behaviour: for example the spectator violence that mars soccer events. 30 We cannot ignore our deep, personal interactions: sport puts body and soul, or body and mind, in motion. Because of the interdependence of body and soul/mind, an overdeveloped body may inhibit spiritual development, which may in turn cause physical problems–these then leading back to psychological problems. Child psychologists have proved that weak motor abilities may cause psychological problems. Stress is an ever-increasing social problem. Sport can help relieve stress, for example its therapeutical value that helps people to switch off’’ and relax. 2.5.4 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT Does sport have physiological value? It is universally recognised that general well-being of a society is closely related to its physical well-being. People may rely on certain medications to improve their physical health and help prevent psychological problems. Physical activity is necessary to organic growth. Everyone needs physical activity; it stimulates the body’s normal functioning. Movement stimulates growth and strengthens the organs. Physical performance improves as the body is used; when not used, degeneration is inevitable. Numerous research projects have proved the benefits of sport. With learners generally following a physically passive lifestyle, schools need to promote these benefits. Physical activity is vital for the correct functioning of our motor abilities (eg perceptual motor, balance, speed, power, endurance, coordination and flexibility). Physical exercise is also vital to national welfare. An unfit population could even lead to national disaster or downfall, which is why the former USSR focused on mental and physical education of its citizenry in preparation for combat. People seldom fully realise the value of physical activity. It is a fundamental need, as Tempelhoff (1983:26) concludes: Sports can indeed contribute to mankind’s physical vitality through modern physiology: In the development and maintenance of muscle tone, organic, and vitality of body functioning.’’ 2.5.5 THE ETHICAL VALUE OF SPORT 31 PES3701/ 1 Which ethical values do we learn from sport? 32 There is a long and respected belief that a healthy relationship exists between our physical lives and the development and formation of character. In ancient Greece Plato condemned an education that was either exclusively academic or purely physical. He emphasised the education of a strong, civilised mind, as opposed to a weak, uncivilised mind. As in today’s sporting arena, in English schools of the Middle Ages team sports were highly valued for cultivating qualities of bravery, loyalty and cooperation. Qualities developed by sport include those of daring, endurance and–better still–even temper, self-restraint, fairness and honour, and unreserved praise for another’s success. Competitive sport offers the opportunity for participants to cultivate sound ethical practices. Sport allows one to develop a good sporting spirit and attitude, loyalty and discipline, respect for others, modesty and dignity. For insight into the ethical value of sport, you need to understand the terms sportsmanship’’ or being a good sport’’, and fairness’’ and discipline’’. Sportsmanship, being a good sport’’ or having a sporting spirit, implies playing an honest game that requires qualities such as courage, endurance, self- control, self-respect, mutual trust, politeness and fairness. Fairness is seen as one of the most important ingredients of a sporting spirit. Fairness also relates to the application of the rules: what applies to one player should apply to the rest of the team. Team members meet before the game to decide on the rules and no player is entitled to special treatment. Fair play consists of friendship, respect for others and always playing in the right spirit. It eliminates cheating, gamesmanship, the use of drugs, violence (physical and verbal), exploitation, inequality, corruption and excessive commercialisation. Discipline is another quality that sport develops. Strict discipline is required for regular practising, participation and obedience of rules, especially in highly competitive events. As we have already suggested, sporting events may however present a completely different scenario in which players regard opponents as enemies, and dishonesty, intimidation and provocative behaviour are rife. But we should not allow negative elements to overshadow sport’s benefits for moral development. Often the sport as a whole is blamed, when it is generally the individual participant who is guilty of the misconduct. Sport today faces numerous social pressures. The impact of politics on sport, obsession with success, public craving for heroes and stars, need for financial backing, and mass media exposure: all intensify pressure on both society and the sporting world. 33 PES3701/ 1 As already noted, sometimes the spotlight falls on competitive sport as a source of undesirable behaviour, for example arguments with umpires, bending of the rules, deliberate fouls, generally antisocial or violent behaviour, and swearing. Sports players are often fined, even banned or suspended, for offences. Do not let the negative elements detract from the true nature of sport. We need stricter measures to rid sport of bad language, foul play and interference with umpires or referees. We need players, officials, administrators, spectators, the media, sponsors, learners and parents to respect the sporting codes of behaviour. 34 2.5.6 SPORT AS A POLITICAL VALUE AND WEAPON FOR SOCIETY AND THE STATE Is sport influenced by politics? Sports values are interwoven with the society’s values. Because top sporting performances are seen to demonstrate national and international prestige, politics and foreign policy have marked influence on sport. As discussed, in ancient Greece sport was used to prepare citizens for war and the Roman civilisation was one of the first to use sport for military purposes and later to control the masses. To return to the more recent example of the former USSR: sport was a vital part of preparation for war; sport was a means to physical fitness, psychological awareness, proficiency in military skills (shooting and skiing), and developing stamina, endurance, fighting spirit and enterprise. Sport and politics are strongly bound by nationalism. The founder of the Olympic movement, Pierre de Courbertin (Stolyarov & Sanadze 1984:38), describes his rationale for the movement as follows: The Olympics unites as in one brush stroke of sunny rays all those principleswhich promote the perfection of a man. The Olympic Games were meant to promote peace and collaboration–sport open to all nations and free of politics. This is the Olympic ideal, but today it is not always achievable. The former USSR used sport as for social control, allowing the Soviet regime to exploit genuine enthusiasm for Party-inspired goals. Party-inspired goals were also clearly expressed in South African sport between 1948 and 1967 when the National Party’s policy of racial segregation in sport resulted in discrimination against non -white participants. These are two examples of the potential to manipulate sport for political aims. Finally, top athletic performance serves as national and international propaganda. In the same sense, sport is an important nation builder. Australian sport, for example, is a super-religion’’ with a passionate following. We may say much the same of sport in South Africa–rugby was a nation builder following the Springbok victory in the 1995 World Cup. In Canada, ice hockey unites the nation. In Africa people are passionate about soccer. 35 PES3701/ 1 South Africa experienced party-political interference, and internal and outside political interference in sport: sustained political onslaught from within the nation to isolate sports governing bodies, with widespread political infighting (before readmittance to the international arena), and media exposure of politically charged incidents in school sport. The best-known method of withholding participation is the boycott: boycotts by the Olympic Games occurred back in 1920 and as recently as 1984. Activists, in and outside 36 the country, fought South Africa’s racial policy using sport as a political weapon. The continual pressure o n government brought about many changes, to the benefit of all. In 1979 the government called for the depoliticising of all sport to speed up South Africa’s re-entry into the international arena. All this political tension and interference would certainly have disappointed the founder of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). His aim was to improve and promote the values of English sport, the English private school system and character building. Now think about the following: Should politics and politicians be involved in sport? 2.5.7 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SPORT FOR THE COMMUNITY Does sport have an economic value? Nowadays we cannot disregard the huge sums of money involved in sport, in the forms of prize money, expensive facilities, high salaries or specialised equipment. Major technological developments have changed sport into big bus iness. But the close relationship between sport and finance is not new: building planners worked out costs of the stadium at Olympia in ancient Greece, and provided for athletes’ training and housing needs all of which involved financial considerations. Even though the Greeks claimed that participation was for the glory of winning the crown, various athletes expected to be substantially and materially rewarded by their communities for bringing success to their city. In fact, the athletes’ search for more lucrative prizes led to the collapse of the old Olympian Games. Today the massive economic enterprise of sport benefits many industries round the world: sport is now a public commodity on the commercial market. When a country stages an international sporting event it stands to benefit economically. For example tourism has major benefits for a national economy. Tourists stimulate the local economy, especially bars and restaurants, taxis, hotels and other retail businesses. South Africa’s hosting of the Rugb y World Cup in 1995 led to an influx of visitors, resulting in a boom in the hotel and transport industries. Building and maintenance of sport facilities are million-dollar industries. South Africa’s need for basic sport facilities should provide much-needed jobs in the construction industry. If SA had won the bid for the 2004 Olympics, this would 37 PES3701/ 1 have been a major boost for the construction industry. The number of professional athletes increases by the day. Their status as participants is demonstrated by their salaries–they often earn more than people in other top professions. Sport offers careers in sports medicine, sport law, sport psychology, sports administration and stadium management. 38 Sponsorships offered to sport, gate earnings and expenditure are other examples of sport as a big money-making business. Companies spend millions on advertising so they can associate their products with sport. The former USSR recognised the economic value of sport for its workers–the culture of promoting a physically fit workforce in the interests of national productivity. The People’s Republic of China has much the same culture. Other economic implications of sport are that not everybody can afford to participate because of rising costs of sports equipment, for example. Nor are entry fees, membership fees and coaching fees affordable to all. Also, big prize money with a win -at-all-costs’’ mentality has caused many athletes to turn to alternative methods (stimulants and steroids) to get to the top. South Africa’s renewed involvement in international sport after 30 years of isolation gave prominence to broadcast rights. The international world was conditioned to believe that unless you beat the South African teams you could not claim to be the champions. Media coverage, especially television coverage, is a top priority: broadcasters have to be highly selective because broadcasting rights are expensive and air time is limited. High -profile sports like soccer, rugby, cricket, motor sport and golf get preference over less pop ular sports. Sponsorship of teams is therefore highly selective. The current South African state lottery can help the sport trust fund ( Lotto thata ma chance’’) to support various sports ventures. Other economic sectors, like housing, health and education will also benefit from the fund. Offering tax rebates to companies sponsoring sporting events is an incentive to be reconsidered. Clearly, sport has both economic advantages and disadvantages. Many questions need answers: Should players be paid for performances? Should learners have to pay to participate in sport? Should learners be paid for coaching? What is the financial responsibility of the state towards sport? Activity Now give examples of how a nation benefits economically from sport. 2.6 CONCLUSION Sport has played an uplifting, recreational and reconstructive role from the earliest times. No one since has emphasised physical education as much as the ancient Greeks. Sport played an important part in education and was included in the daily 39 PES3701/ 1 school programme. Today we need regular exercise to compensate for the loss of physical activity imposed on us by modern civilisation. Physiologically, there is no doubt that sport participation is an opportunity to improve general health. Sport promotes and stimulates physical growth and develops motor skills. 40 Never underestimate the educational value of sport. It inspires us to perform better. Its discipline improves our ability to concentrate. The link between sport participation and good academic performance is long established: mens sana in corpore sano’’–a healthy mind in a healthy body. Sport brings people into regular contact with one another, which stimulates and develops social growth. Team and individual sporting experiences strengthen the bonds of friendship. Social problems can be resolved by participation in sport. People all over the world are brought together to share a common interest–sport– by international events. Well-established research has clarified sport’s contribution to healthy human psychology and emotional development. Sport has untold value for the handicapped to promote self- knowledge and self-esteem. Development of individual character is rooted in sport as it helps develop a positive attitude, endurance and sporting spirit. From an ethical point of view, we see that sport teaches us to prove ourselves th rough participation. Honour and reputation come before greed and materialism. True sports heroes and heroines will be remembered in future generations. Economically and politically, spectator sport has significant value for the nation, the community and the individual. Sport provides job opportunities for millions across the world. Although sport can be politically inspired to bring about change in the society, the nation and the world, sport should be kept out of the hands of politicians. Finally, we note that involvement in sport is a personal matter: it differs from person to person. 41 PES3701/ 1 STUDY UNIT 3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION Do you know how the body is structered and how it functions? The human body is probably one of the most highly complex living machines’’. Anatomy involves learning about the structure of the body. Once you know how the body is built you will understand how the learner’s body responds to exercise and training. As a physical educator you do not need a medical doctor’s detailed and complex knowledge, but you do need to know the basic structures of the body and how they work together. Learning outcomes When you have worked through this study guide you will be able to: discuss the structure of the body explain the functioning of various body systems 3.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY 3.2.1 CELLS–THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE The human body is made up of millions of tiny, living cells. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells. A cell is therefore a unit of living material and it is the basic building block of life. Each type of cell or group of cells carries out a different job. That is why cells do not look the same. Cells are designed for the following different reasons: to carry messages (nerve cells carry electrical messages) 42  to carry chemicals (red cells in the blood carry oxygen around the body) to support the body (bone cells make up the skeleton) to move the body (muscle cells can create force) Each cell has its own task; yet all cells live, grow and finally die. New cells then replace them. 43 PES3701/ 1 3.2.2 THE SKELETON Can you describe the functioning of the skeleton? THE HUMAN SKELETON A skeleton is a system of bones and other supporting material that is found inside our bodies. It has three main functions: 1. Support. The skeleton supports the rest of the body, like the framework of a building. Without this a human being would be a shapeless lump. 2. Protection. The skeleton protects important and delicate organs of the 44 body; for example the skull protects the brain. 45 PES3701/ 1 3. Movement. The skeleton provides anchorage for muscles. Muscles that are fixed to the skeleton can operate joints. We can move the body as a whole and also move parts of the body with a high degree of precision and control. The human skeleton consists of over 200 bones. They appear in all sha pes and sizes (long, short, round, flat). All bones have the same basic structure, despite their different sizes. Bones are very hard and strong. They have to stand up to strong forces. 3.2.3 BONES Bones consist of living and nonliving parts. The living parts make the bone slightly flexible and let it absorb sudden shocks. The nonliving part of a bone makes it rigid and gives it strength. Bones act as a system of levers. Bones are not actually joined; instead they fit closely together, forming joints. KNEE AND HIP JOINTS 3.2.4 JOINTS Joints form the junctions between bones. The bones at each joint are linked by tough, flexible ligaments. Ligaments are strong fibrous straps that will not return to their original shape once they have been damaged or stretched. The different joints between the bones allow you to move in different ways. Each joint therefore allows a different sort of movement. Some joints permit a wide range of movement (eg the shoulder). Other joints, such as the knee, permit restricted 46 movement. 47 PES3701/ 1 3.2.5 MUSCLE AND TENDONS When do we use muscles? Bones are moved at the joints by the contraction and relaxation of muscles attached to them. There are over 600 muscles in your body, which make up approximately 40 percent of your mass. We use muscles to breathe, to move and even to stand still. The muscle used to control movements consists of bundles of long, thin cells called muscle fibres. Each bundle of fibre is held together by a tough sheath. A similar sheath round the outside holds the whole muscle together. All the connecting she aths join together at the end of each muscle, forming the tendons which anchor the muscle to the bone. Tendons are made up of strong tissue. Tendons attach muscles to bones on either side of the joint. Most of the muscles in your body control one joint of the body. Some control two joints, such as the hamstrings, which work across the hip and the knee joints. The illustration below shows how a muscle is made up of bundles of fibres. MUSCLE FIBRE When muscles pull on a bone, movement occurs. Muscles can only pull; they cannot push. Muscles are arranged in opposing pairs for this reason. When one muscle tenses and contracts, its' partner relaxes and stretches to allow movement. 48 There would be no movement if both muscle groups contracted at the same time. A good example of the action of opposing muscle groups is the elbow joint. The biceps bends the arm at the elbow, and it is opposed by the triceps which straightens the arm. 49 PES3701/ 1  MUSCLE IN UPPER ARM Movement consists of a contraction of various muscle groups, seldom just one. The contribution of each muscle group varies according to the action and effort required. What are the implications for you as an educator? All physical activity programmes should provide a balanced development of a muscle and its opposing muscle. You should provide for the development of both the left side and the right side of the body. An unequal development leads to injury of the weaker muscle. Types of muscle fibre The muscle fibre of each muscle consists of two types: – fast twitch fibres – slow twitch fibres We all have a mixture of fast twitch fibres and slow twitch fibres in our muscles. The different percentages are determined by heredity and cannot be changed by any sort of training. The fast twitch muscle fibre is like the engine of a racing car. It produces high- 50 speed movement for short periods of time. The chemical reactions involved in this fast movement produce large amounts of waste product in the form of lactic acid. This high level of lactic acid means that the athlete cannot use the fast twitch fibres for very long. An example is the lactic acid that builds up and slows the athlete down in the final 60 to 80 metres of a 400 metre sprint. 51 PES3701/ 1 The slow twitch fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for much longer periods. It produces waste products that are easily disposed of. That is why slow twitch fibres are important for endurance events. THE SKELETAL MUSCLES–FRONT VIEW 52  THE SKELETAL MUSCLES–BACK VIEW Athletes with predominantly slow twitch fibres can do sprint training to improve their speed. The highest speed attainable will however still be far less than for an athlete who has a greater percentage of fast twitch fibres. Athletes with predominantly fast twitch fibres can similarly improve their endurance by doing endurance training. The level will still not be as good as the athlete who has a higher percentage of slow twitch fibres to begin with. 53 PES3701/ 1 3.2.6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Muscles pull when they receive signals from the brain telling them to do so. The signals are carried by nerves made up of special nerve cells. The actual contraction process of a muscle fibre starts when it receives a nervous impulse. The nervous impulse is an electrical signal carried by the nerve cells. The nervous system is a whole network that includes the brain, spinal cord and the many nerves that branch off the spinal cord to all parts of the body. The signal from the nervous system determines the number of individual fibres that contract. If a light load is placed on a muscle, only a few fibres of the entire muscle need to contract. More and more fibres are signalled to contract when the load is increased. 3.2.7 THE HEART AND LUNGS (THE CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM) The heart and lungs provide a steady supply of oxygen for all the various functions of the body. The heart is about the size of your fist and is situated in the centre and to the left of your chest. The one side of the heart receives blood fresh with oxygen that is then delivered to the rest of the body by the arteries. The blood then returns to the heart through the veins and is pumped back to the lungs. The heart benefits from regular exercise. The heart beats more quickly and more powerfully during exercise. Blood consists of a mixture of water, cells and dissolved 54  THE CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM nutrients. It forms the body’s internal transport system. Blood is important for the following reasons: Blood carries oxygen from the lungs and food from the digestive system to the cells of the body. (Red cells in the blood transport oxygen.) Blood carries carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs, where it is removed by being breathed out of the body. Blood carries waste materials from body tissues to the kidneys, where they are excreted. Blood prevents infection by healing wounds and fighting germs. Lungs have a very large surface (the size of a badminton court) to assist in the exchange of oxygen and other gases. 3.2.8 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES What type of body build do you have? 55 PES3701/ 1 Studies of top sportsmen and sportswomen show that sport not only selects those with outstanding natural ability but also those with particular body types. The method of body typing is called somatotyping. People come in all shapes and sizes. However three main body types are found in men and women: 1. Endomorph. These persons tend to have a less well -defined body outline and can become fat easily. 2. Mesomorph. These persons are well proportioned and muscular. 3. Ectomorph. These are thin individuals who tend to be tall. Extreme endomorph ectomorphy ectomorphy Extreme ectomorph SOMATOTYPING: THE THREE EXTREMES OF BODY TYPE N Note Now read chapter 2 in Thomas et al (1988) on their ideas about the influence of body B size on a learner's motor performance. gymnasts 56 THE SKETCH BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATHLETE 57 PES3701/ 1 People are normally a combination of the various body types. The type of sport practised and the position of the player often require a certain body type. For example, a high jumper tends to be of the ectomorph type. Forwards playing in the scrum tend to be of the endomorph type. 3.2.9 POSTURE Educators have always been concerned about learners’ posture. Various attempts have been made to help learners develop good posture. Desktops are slanted, blackboards adjusted and schoolbags altered. However, chronic television viewing has led to inadequate daily exercise and numerous postural problems. If we detect these problems at an early stage they can be corrected by means of vigorous exercise. Most of the typical posture deviations of young learners can be observed and corrected with proper exercise. The following deviations can be observed when the learner is s tanding beside a plumb line. Round upper back (kyphosis) Round upper back, or kyphosis, is a marked increase in the curve of the back. The head and shoulders are usually held in a forward position, and the backward curve of the upper body causes the pelvis to tilt forward slightly and the knees to bend somewhat. This condition increases the strain on the upper back muscles and shifts the weight of the body to the front of the foot. Hollow back (lordosis) Hollow back, or lordosis, is an exaggerated forward curve of the lower back. The most common signs are a protruding abdomen, a swayback, and hyperextension of the knees. Lateral curvature (scoliosis) Lateral curvature, or scoliosis, can be C-shaped, extending the length of the spinal column, or S-shaped, with a small curve on the upper back and a compensating curve on the lower back. The C-shaped curve is normally toward the left, since most learners are right-handed and tend to lean to the weaker side. This comes from the constant elevation of the right arm and the learner’s tendency to lean toward the left side of the desk while writing and performing other sitting activities. Methods of assessing posture The educator in the classroom is usually in the best position to assess his of her students’ postures. Most educators are genuinely concerned about how learners sit at their desks and how they move during their daily activities. For most educators, the evaluation of posture is primarily one of continual subjective 58 observation. If there is a major change in a learner’s posture, the educator brings in the school nurse or parent to determine whether the change is due to a muscular weakness or to other factors (eg poor nutrition, defective eyesight, or emotional problems). When using a simple screening test, an educator should consider the side-view and rear- view plumb line test and the posture chart. The chart can be used in various ways, 59 PES3701/ 1 depending on the educator’s interests, the learner’s age, and the time available. Most educators can complete the test in the classroom. Methods of improving posture The plumb-line test is designed as a basic screening device. It can detect major postural problems and, perhaps more importantly, make the learner more conscious of his or her posture when standing, sitting, or moving through a variety of movement patterns. The foundation of good posture, however, is the possession of optimum levels of muscular strength, endurance, flexibility, and efficient motor skill patterns. If special programmes are warranted, the following exercises will help to correct functional postural defects and improve general muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. 1. Exercises for the head and neck position: head pull head turns heck flattener head lift 2. Exercise for round shoulders: hanging pull-ups push-ups arm rotators wall push head and arm raisers 3. Exercises for the lower back: cat stretcher trunk stretcher back arch 4. Exercises for abdominal muscles: curl-ups elbow-knee touch hip raisers 5. Exercises for functional scoliosis: hanging side stretch The following are guidelines on improving each position and methods of improving posture in general (see Kirchner 1992:167): Use the plumb line test as a basic screening device. Make learners more conscious of their posture when standing, sitting or ca 60  rrying out a variety of movement patterns. Correct functional postural defects by using a special programme to improve overall muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. Exercise to improve head and neck position (head pulls, head turns, neck flatteners). 61 PES3701/ 1  Exercise to improve round shoulders (hanging, pull-ups, push-ups, arm rotators, wall pushes, head and arm raisers). Exercise to help lower back problems. Exercise to strengthen abdominal muscles. Exercise to improve functional scoliosis. Which test is used to evaluate the learner's posture? The side and rear view plumb-line test and posture charts are used to evaluate posture. Both serve as basic screening devices. The physical educator can pick up any major changes in a learner’s posture. Take a view from the side: take a line through the middle of the ear and shoulder joint, slightly in front of the anklebone. Take a back view: take a line through the middle of the head, the vertebra and the middle of the buttocks, and equidistant between the heels. See the following posture chart. 62  Activity Now try answering the following questions: (1) State whether these statements are true or false: (a) The human body is made up of millions of tiny, living cells. (b) There are approximately 60 bones in the human skeleton. (c) The different joints between the bones allow you to move in different ways. (d) Bones are moved at the joints by the contraction and relaxation of muscles attached to them. (e) Each person has either all fast twitch or all slow twitch muscle fibres. (f) Muscles can both pull and push bones to move the body. (g) A slow twitch muscle fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for much longer periods than a fast twitch fibre. (h) Your muscles pull when they receive signals from the brain telling them to do so. (i) The nervous system works one way only, sending messages from the brain to the muscles. (j) Bad posture can be corrected if readily detected. (k) Lordosis refers to a posture characterised by a rounded back. (2) Discuss the following systems of the body referring to their major function: (a) joints (b) nerves (c) bones (d) muscles (e) heart and lungs (3) Discuss somatotyping briefly and state what it means for learners. (4) What is the function of the skeleton? (5) Discuss the meaning of posture and the most common posture problems. Which methods can be used to improve posture? 3.3 CONCLUSION Knowledge about the structure and function of the human body gives the physical educator insight into how the body works. Report any defects you detect in posture and growth to the parents as soon as possible. You should now fully appreciate the relevance of knowledge about the body to physical education. 63 PES3701/ 1 STUDY UNIT 4 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4.1 INTRODUCTION How do children grow and develop? It is important to realise that children are not just smaller versions of adults. Each child has a particular need and certain capabilities. Educators, coaches and parents c urrently lack knowledge about how children grow and develop, which has a serious impact on learners’ sport activities. This ignorance results in unrealistic expectations; as a result many learners abandon sport at an early age. You need to know the various stages that the child passes through from birth to adulthood. The stages are the same for boys and girls, but girls generally mature before