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Student Learning Outcomes Chapter 1 - MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ection 1.1 S a. defineanatomyandphysiologyand relate them to eachother; Anatomy = the study of structure (inductive method) Physiology = the study of bodily...
Student Learning Outcomes Chapter 1 - MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ection 1.1 S a. defineanatomyandphysiologyand relate them to eachother; Anatomy = the study of structure (inductive method) Physiology = the study of bodily function (hypothetico - deductive method) Always go in hand in hand: Form → Function b. describe several ways of studying human anatomy; and Observation of surface structure ○ Cadaver dissection - study the relationships of organs ○ Comparative anatomy - study more than one species to study the evolutionary trends Observation of external body structure ○ Physical examination Palpation - feeling the body to exam Auscultation - listening to internal organs (ex: stethoscope) Percussion - tapping w/ hands or small instruments (ex: testing reflex) Gross = see w/ naked eyes Histology = microscopy c. define a few subdisciplines of human physiology. Study of bodily function Comparative histology - other species ○ Test on animals before on humans for new drugs or medical procedures ection 1.2 S a. describe the contributions of some key people who helped to bring about this transformation. (Don’t have to know exact years) Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius - perform own dissections Physiology: William Harvey- experimental physiology(blood flow in/out of the heart) Maimonides - Jewish rabbi & physician who write 10 medical book Compound light microscope: ○ Jassen- discovered 2 lenses (ocular and objectivelens) ○ Robert Hook -specimen stage, illuminator, coarse& fine focus controls Only x30 magnification First to see “animalcules” = cells Published a book about Microscopy ection 1.3 S a. describe the inductive and hypothetico–deductive methods of obtaining scientific knowledge; Francis Bacon & Rene Decartes→ philosophers thatpropose new way to a approach to science - scientific method Inductive method = Anatomy Hypothetico - deductive method = Physiology b. describe some aspects of experimental design that help to ensure objective and reliable results; Tested repeatedly Supported by reliable observations Not falsified by any credible observation Peer review c. explain what is meant byhypothesis, fact, law,andtheoryin science. Hypothesis - an educated speculation Fact - verified by any trained person Law - described how matter and energy behave ( from inductive reasoning and repeated observations) Theory - explanatory statement derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypothesis ection 1.4 S a. explain why evolution is relevant to understanding human form and function; Charles Darwin - Theory of evolution by natural selection Model how species originate and change over time b. defineevolutionandnatural selection; Evolution - change in genetic composition of population of organisms Natural selection - how evolution works, evolve to survive for that specific environment c. d escribe some human characteristics that can be attributed to the tree-dwelling habits of earlier primates(A rboreal = treetop) Mobile shoulders - swinging among branches Opposable thumbs and prehensile hands - grab and manipulate objects Forward facing eyes w/ stereoscopic vision - depth perception Color vision - ripe fruit Large brain - memory d. describe some human characteristics that evolved later in connection with upright walking.Bipedalism Wider pelvis with a shorter, more curved hip joint Pronounced lumbar curve in the lower back Longer legs, a more developed gluteus medius muscle, and a modified knee joint ection 1.5 S a. list the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest; Smallest to biggest 1. Atoms 2. Molecules (Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids) 3. Organelles 4. Cells (Smallest living unit) 5. Tissues (2 or more type) 6. Organs 7. Organ systems 8. Organisms b. discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans. different from theory but still function normally need to be aware during medical procedures Examples: Horseshoe kidneys, Aorta ection 1.6 S a. state the characteristics that distinguish living organisms from nonliving objects; C.O.R.M.H.E.R.D Cellular composition Organization Responsiveness & movement Me tabolism (Anabolism, catabolism & excretion) Homeostasis Ev olution Reproduction Development b. explain the importance of physiological variation among persons; everyone is different, therefore need to consider the variation so it won't lead to overmedication c. d efinehomeostasisand explain why this concept is central to physiology; Claude Bernard - describe homeostasis Walter Cannon - coined “ homeostasis” ○ Homeostasis - physiological phenomena fluctuate narrowly around a set point by negative feedback, loss of control causes illness or death d. d efinenegative feedback,give an example of it, andexplain its importance to homeostasis; and Negative feedback - reduces an excessive response Examples: ○ Too cold - thermostat activated - heat output - goes a little above set point - shuts off - room cools down - REPEAT ○ Thermoregulation Too hot - blood vessels dilate - sweating Too cold - vasoconstriction in the skin - shivering ○ Low blood pressure - baroreceptors respond to accelerates heartbeat - blood pressure rises to normal e. d efinepositive feedbackand give examples of itsbeneficial and harmful effects;and Positive feedback - amplify a response Examples: ○ Oxytocin during childbirth ○ Fever if doesn’t stop → dangerous f. definegradients, describe the variety of gradientsin human physiology, and identify some forms of matter and energy that flow down gradients. G radient - a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points ○ Blood flow down pressure gradient ○ Glucose or ions flow down concentration or electrical gradient ○ Heat flow down thermal gradient ection 1.7 S a. explain why modern anatomical terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin Scientific investigation began in Greece and Rome - 90% of words Prefix and suffix can change the core meaning of the word ○ Root - cardi, my, path ○ Prefix - epi, hypo ○ Suffix -ia b. d escribe the efforts to achieve an internationally uniform anatomical terminology; Prevent people from naming after themselves - Eponym c. d iscuss why precise spelling is important in anatomy and physiology. Can mean VERY different things ○ Malleus = middle-ear bone | Malleolus = bony part in ankle ○ Hip bone = ilium | Small intestine = ileum ○ Trapezium = bone | trapezius = muscle Chapter 3 - CELLULAR FORM AND FUNCTION Cytology -study of cells ection 3.1 S a. discuss the development and modern tenets of the cell theory; Organisms are made of cells and their products Cell is the simplest unit of life Cell processes determine organism structure and function All cells arise from existing cells All cells share fundamental similarities in chemical composition and metabolic mechanisms b. describe cell shapes from their descriptive terms -9 c. state the size range of human cells and discuss factors that limit their size; usually ~ 10-15 µm diameter ○ Egg cell > 100 µm ○ Neurons > 1 m long S urface area to volume ratio - cells that are too large can absorb nutrients /remove waste efficiently - like LARGE SA:V ratio d. discuss the way that developments in microscopy have changed our view of cell structure; and Light microscopy (LM) ○ Light directed through sample ○ Illuminates material under magnification Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) ○ Shoots beams of electrons at the sample ○ Greater resolution at higher magnification e. outline the major components of a cell. P lasma membrane Cytoplasm ○ Cytoskeleton - hold structure ○ Organelles ○ Inclusion (oil, pigment,bacteria or cell debris) - not enclosed by membrane ○ Cytosol - aqueous fluid of cytoplasm ection 3.2 S a. describe the structure of a plasma membrane; Phospholipids bilayer w/ hydrophilic head facing out and hydrophobic tails facing in b. explain the functions of the lipid, protein, and carbohydrate components of the plasma membrane; Lipids Phospholipids - 75% ○ Bilayer + keep membrane fluid Cholesterol - 20% ○ Low concentration - stiffen membrane ○ High concentration - increase fluidity Glycolipids - 5% ○ Contribute toglycocalyx Project into extracellular space To distinguish intrinsic from foreign cells Protection, cell adhesion and fertilization Unique for everyone but twins Protein Transmembrane proteins - completely pass through the bilayer Peripheral proteins - adhere to the membrane (anchored down by filaments) Some functions of membrane proteins 1. Receptor 2. Enzyme 3. Channel 4. Gated channel 5. Cell-identity marker 6. Cell-adhesion molecule (CAM) c. describe a second-messenger system and discuss its importance in human physiology; 1. Messenger (Epinephrine) = → Receptor @ plasma membrane 2. Receptor → Releases G protein 3. G protein freely travel in cytoplasm → bind to an enzyme (Adenylate cyclase) → convert ATP to cAMP 4. cAMP = second messenger → active kinase → kinase active enzymes Importance - transmitting signals and allow metabolic steps to occur d. explain the composition and functions of the glycocalyx that coats cell surfaces; and Glycocalyx is a cell surface coating made of glycolipids and glycoproteins Functions: physical cushion, protection, adhesion, fertilization and embryonic development e. describe the structure and functions of microvilli, cilia, and flagella, and pseudopods M icrovilli - finger like projections, help with absorption → small intestines Cilia - hair like projections, longer and have stroke movement → respiratory tract, fallopian tubes → Cystic Fibrosis Flagella - movement → human sperm Pseudopods = “false feet” cytoplasm filled extension of the cells, temporary 1. Amoeba (freshwater) → use to catch food a. Pinocytosis - cellular drinking b. Phagocytosis - cellular eating 2. Neutrophil (White blood cells → catch foreign particles in immune system 3. Macrophage → filamentous pseudopods to bring in bacteria ection 3.3 S a. explain what is meant by aselectively permeable membrane; A membrane that allows certain molecules to pass through while blocking others b. describe the various mechanisms for transporting material through cellular membranes; and 1. Filtration- byhydrostatic pressure, no ATPrequired→ blood capillaries 2. Simple diffusion- net movement fromhigh → low w/no ATP 3. Osmosis- movement ofwater from high → low a. Hydrostatic pressure = pushing force (Larger V = Larger hydrostatic pressure) b. Osmotic = pulling force 4. Carrier - mediated transport-via transport protein a. Types of carriers Uniport → gated ion channel Symport → Na+ / Glucose transporters Antiport → Na+ / K+ pump b. Facilitated diffusion: High → Low no ATP for moleculesthat are too big, charged or hydrophobic Pumps: Low → HighNEED ATP →Na+ / K+ pump ○ 3 Na+ out / 2 K+ in ○ 50% of daily energy use 5. V esicular transport- move large particles or quantities in enclosed vesicles - NEED ATP a. Endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated cytosis) i. Receptor - Mediated Cytosis (most selective) 1. Clathrin-coated vesicle 2. Ex: Second messenger system b. Exocytosis c. Transcytosis - transfer material across the cell and release it on the other side → Golgi Apparatus c. defineosmolarityandtonicityand explain their importance. O smolarity - the number of particles of solute in a solution Tonicity - the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume ection 3.4 S a. describe the cytoskeleton and its functions; Microtubules → centrioles ○ Protein tubulin Intermediate filaments → nuclear lamina ○ Variety of fibrous proteins Microfilaments → villi ○ α & β tubulin F unction: supports and shapes a cell, helps position and transport organelles, provides strength, assists in cell division, and aids cell movement. b. list the main organelles of a cell, describe their structure, and explain their functions; and 1. Nucleus a. Nuclear pore: mRNA exit the nucleus b. Nucleolus: produces parts that form ribosomes c. Chromatin: genetic material d. Nuclear lamina : protein structural components, intermediate filaments 2. ER a. Rough ER i. Studded with ribosomes → protein synthesis b. Smooth ER i. Make lipids, phospholipids, cholesterol and steroid hormones 3. Golgi Complex a. Process → Package → Transport proteins in vesicles 4. Lysosomes a. Digestive system of cell 5. Peroxisomes a. Generate hydrogen peroxide → oxidative purpose 6. Proteasomes a. Protein disposal by tagging them 7. Mitochondria a. Make ATP b. Cristae: the folds → increase SA = increase rate c. Matrix: hold enzymes, proteins and pH for Kreb’s cycle d. Inner membrane : ETC e. Outer membrane: transport protein to pull in pyruvate 8. Centrioles a. microtubules b. mitosis - separating the sister chromatids c. meiosis - separate homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids 9. Ribosomes a. Make protein from RNA b. Free in cytosol or studded on rough ER c. No unit membrane c. give some examples of cell Inclusions and explain how Inclusions differ from organelles. igments like melatonin, chloroplast P Oils, bacteria or cell debris Inclusion are NOT enclosed by membrane and NOT essential for survival But important for the function of the cells Chapter 4-GENETICS AND CELLULAR FUNCTION ection 4.1 S a. describe the structure of DNA and relate this to its function; Made of nucleotides: ○ Sugar - deoxyribose ○ Phosphate group - phosphate backbone ○ Nitrogenous base - what changes Purines: Adenine , Guanine = 2 rings (Pu reAsGo ld) Pyrimidines: Cytosine Thymine and Uracil (Pyramids has one top = 1 ring) Law of complementary base - pairing A - T (2 H bonds) C - G (3H bonds) Double helix, antiparallel → semi-conservative replication b. explain how DNA and proteins are organized to form the chromosomes; and DNA wound around histones → form nucleosomes → condense and fold over further into chromosomes c. describe the types of RNA, their structural and functional differences, and how they compare with DNA. mRNA = transcription / transcript region of DNA tRNA = translation / find amino acids in cytosol → bring to ribosomes rRNA = special RNA that forms part of ribosome Section 4.2 a. g ive a working definition of thegeneand explainwhy new discoveries in genetics have changed our concept of what a gene is; Gene - segments of DNA that code for proteins Recent discoveries in genetics have revealed that the concept of a gene is more complex than simply coding for proteins, b. explain what the human genome is and what relationship it has to the health sciences; Genome - sum of all genes Human genome project - know where the location and function of each gene Gene therapy, prediction, diagnosis and treatment c. definegenetic codeand describe how DNA codes forprotein structure; G enetic code/ Central dogma: DNA → mRNA → Protein d. describe the process of assembling amino acids to form a protein; mRNA’s codon is read by ribosomes tRNA read the anticodon → pick up the amino acid and go back to ribosome @A Polypeptide form @P tRNA exits @E ○ tRNA and mRNA goes in opposite directions e. explain what happens to a protein after its amino acid sequence has been synthesized; golgi f. d escribe some ways that a gene can be turned on or off; and casein - milk production ○ Prolactin → activates Prolactin receptor ○ Activation of regulatory protein ○ Casein gene is turn on ○ Casein is produced in breast tissues g. explain how DNA indirectly regulates the synthesis of nonprotein molecules. testosteron ○ DNA codes for mRNA → enzyme is produced ○ Luteinizing hormone from pituitary gland = second messenger activates dormant enzyme ○ Activate enzyme convert cholesterol → Testosterone → secrets ection 4.3 S a. describe how DNA is replicated; -semiconservative b. describe the life history of a cell, including the events of mitosis; and c. explain how the timing of cell division is regulated. ection 4.4 S a. describe the paired arrangement of chromosomes in the human karyotype; b. definealleleand discuss how alleles affect the traitsof an individual; and c. discuss the interaction of heredity and environment in producing individual traits. d. discuss the consequences of replication errors; mutations. Vocab (Chap 1 → 4)
