STS Midterm 1-6 PDF

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS 1. Law of Ellipses 2. Law of Equal Areas Refer to Greek speculation about “Nature" 3. Law of Harmony Known a...

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS 1. Law of Ellipses 2. Law of Equal Areas Refer to Greek speculation about “Nature" 3. Law of Harmony Known as "Pre-Socratic" or “Non-theological" or o GALILEO GALILEI “First philosophy ▪ Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist THREE CHARACTERISTICS who is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Modern Observational 1. The world is a natural whole Astronomy". His improvements to 2. There is natural 'order' the telescope, astronomical 3. Humans can 'discover' those laws observations, and support for THREE INTELLECTUALS Copernicanism were all integral to the Copernican Revolution. ❖ NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (COPERNICAN REVOLUTION) 1. Jupiter’s Moons o The Copernican Revolution refers to the 2. Phases of Venus 16th-century paradigm shift named after the 3. Sunspots Polish mathematician and astronomer, ❖ CHARLES DARWIN (DARWINIAN REVOLUTION) Nicolaus Copernicus. o In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin, an o He first outlined this idea in English naturalist and biologist, sparked a "Commentariolus" and formalized it in his major intellectual revolution. 1543 work "De Revolutionibus Orbium o His 1859 book, "On the Origin of Species,” Coelestium”. introduced the theory of evolution, changing o GEOCENTRIC VS. HELIOCENTRIC how we understand the natural world. Copernicus o NATURAL SELECTION It is the process The belief was repositioned the through which certain traits become more or that the Earth was earth from the less common in a population due to their the center of the center of the solar impact on the survival and reproduction of Solar System system and individuals. based on the introduced the o FOUR MAIN PRINCIPLES geocentric model idea that the earth ▪ VARIATION This refers to the of Ptolemy rotates on its own axis. differences in traits among o TWO MOTIONS OF THE EARTH individuals within a population. EARTH’S EARTH’S These differences arise from genetic ROTATION REVOLUTION variation and can also be influenced Earth rotates on its by environmental factors. Earth orbits ▪ OVERPOPULATION Most species axis once every 24 around the Sun tend to produce more offspring than hours. The Earth’s once a year, which axis is titled the environment can support. This is the basis for our approximately leads to competition for resources calendar year. 23.5 degrees. such as food, shelter, and mates. Not o PLANETARY ORDER all offspring will survive to adulthood ▪ Copernicus arranged the planets in a and reproduce. specific order from the Sun: ▪ ADAPTATION Adaptations are traits Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, that improve an organism's ability to and Saturn. survive and reproduce in its o JOHANNES KEPLER environment. These traits arise ▪ Johannes Kepler was a German through natural selection, which acts astronomer, mathematician, and key on variations within the figure in the scientific revolution. He ▪ population. is most famous for his three laws of ▪ DESCENT MODIFICATION Each planetary motion: generation shows slight changes 1  from the previous one. Over time, ▪ Most the theories in the these modifications can accumulate, Psychodynamic perspective were leading to the emergence of new made based on or as variants of species from common ancestors. Freud’s Psychoanalysis. ❖ SIGMUND FREUD (FREUDIAN REVOLUTION) o FREUD’S THREE LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE o Sigmund Freud is the one who first ▪ UNCONSCIOUS - contains all the attempted to understand human behavior in drives, urges or instincts that are late 19th century. outside awareness. o He is an Austrian psychologist, neurologist ▪ PRECONSCIOUS - contains ideas that and the founder of Psychoanalysis. can be recalled easily or with some o He believes that the unconscious mind plays difficulty. a vital role in the human personality, and ▪ CONSCIOUS - includes all memories that our personality is shaped by the that remain within an individual's enduring conflict between our impulses to awareness. do whatever we feel like and our restraint to o COMMON DEFENSE MECHANISM control these urges. ▪ REPRESSION - The unconscious act o 3 STRUCTURES OF MIND of keeping threatening thoughts, ▪ ID - Most aggressive of the three feeling or impulses our of structure, is concerned with instant consciousness. Used if the threat is gratification of basic physical needs coming from inside. and urges, the unconscious mind. ▪ DENIAL - Refusal to accept “I want to do that now!” unpleasant reality. Used if the threat ▪ EGO - The rational and pragmatic is coming from outside. part of the personality as it pacifies ▪ PROJECTION - A defense mechanism both id and super ego. “Maybe we in which people deny particular can compromise”. ideas, feelings, or impulses and ▪ SUPER EGO - Most rule governed project them onto others. structure of the mind, concerned ▪ SUBLIMATION - A defense with social rules and morals, often mechanism that involves expressing called the conscience or moral a socially unacceptable impulse in a compass. socially acceptable way. “It’s not right to do that”. ▪ REACTION FORMATION - A defense o PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY mechanism that occurs when an ▪ Personality development is focused unpleasant idea, feeling or impulse is on the changing seat of sensual turned into its opposite. pleasure of an individual. ▪ RATIONALIZATION - Giving logical ▪ The childhood stages of reasons to justify unacceptable development during which, behavior that is motivated by according to Sigmund Freud, the ID’s unconscious instinctual impulses. pleasure-seeking energies focuses on ▪ REGRESSION - Return to a prior, distinct erogenous zone. lower state of cognitive, emotional, ▪ ORAL – ANAL – PHALLIC – LATENCY or behavioral functioning where the – GENITALS individual reverts to immature o PSYCHOANALYSIS behavior or to an earlier stage of ▪ Psychoanalysis revolves around the psychosexual development. belief that everyone has ▪ DISPLACEMENT - The individual unconscious thoughts, feelings, discharges tensions associated with desires, and memories. Ex: hostility and fear by taking them Psychoanalysis therapy is used to out on a less threatening target. release repressed emotions and experiences. 2  AFRICA way of keeping records and was used to sustain culture. o Also known as to be oldest civilization known in the ASIA history of humankind. INDIA o Ancient african civilization first dwells with applied o Have a very complicated metaphysical science in agricultural economy, metallurgical understanding on the inseparable knowledge and science, textile and engineering predictions, and religious traditions and focused on application medicines. o Indians has a very high regard on o The Egyptians were great builders, they created "Veda"(knowledge). They were concerned on measurement mathematics for construction mathematics and astronomy, but mostly concerned purposes. with rituals. MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING o During Gupta dynasty in India, they studied the science of life, Ayurveda, which also included the five o CUBIT SYSTEM - Invented cubit system and used it to elemental theories of matter in ancient China build the pyramids of Egypt. o One of the most regard records is the Charaka o ARCHITECTURE - Their infrastructure also shows Samhita, or one of the other Samhita, or collections sophistication in architecture and using nature as a that could help you memorize hundreds of named means of lighting. body parts. o DAMS AND CANALS - Develop methods in o They studied anatomy and etiology, what causes engineering like methods of surveying of the land different diseases. They focus on diseases for along the Nile river, creation of dams, canals and children, elderly diseases, mental illness, organ irrigation system that supported life and allowed the diseases, surgery, poisons and antidotes flourish of agriculture of the state. o The Ayurveda, the science of life, largely concerns SOCIETY AND MEDICINE healthful living in general, including how to prevent diseases and influence hygiene and diet, almost o PHARAOHS - In 3100 BC, all cities were united to similar to ancient chinese medicine. form one Egyptian state. It is sustained with 300 Pharaohs. Upon their death, they believe that they CHINA will transcend as God themselves, they are XIA DYNASTY mummified and buried in labyrinth tombs, like pyramids. The solar year was measured at 365.25 days, eclipses were o PYRAMIDS - Pyramids did not only serves as tombs predicted, and the 26,000-year precession of the equinoxes but also as representation of innovative was discovered. infrastructure of the state. They developed Celestial bodies were thought to float in infinite space, with mathematics, particular to the measurement China at the center as the "Middle Kingdom" and the mathematics, which harnessed their way of living. emperor as the "Son of Heaven." o NATURAL MEDICINE - They mastered the art of nature, they are the first shamans to practice natural CONFUCIUS AND HAN DYNASTY medicine using natural remedies. Confucius' philosophy emphasized: Tradition, etiquette, ASTRONOMY AND WRITING SYSTEM respect for elders, and social harmony. o SOLAR CALENDAR - They combined mathematics The Han Dynasty institutionalized these values by: and astronomy, were able to make 24 hours division Establishing imperial universities and state exams, promoting in a day, and used it to create the first solar calendar Confucian ideals. to feature a 365 day ratio in one year. SONG DYNASTY o HIEROGLYPHICS - Was developed around 3150BC, during the old kingdom and was used to inscribe on Height of Chinese advancements in agriculture, engineering, the walls, pots and other clay product. and science during the Song Dynasty. o PAPYRUS - Similar to paper were derived from the papyrus plant. This writing system was more modern In the 8th century, rice cultivation began. In 1012, the Song Dynasty introduced fast-ripening rice from the Champa 3 Kingdom (modern-day Vietnam), increasing production with Mexico and extended inland and southwards across less water. the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. o It is one of only three regions of the world where AGRICULTURAL writing is known to have independently developed 1. Water-lifting devices (the others being ancient Sumer and China). 2. Rice plow MAYAN HIEROGLYPHS EVERYDAY TOOLS o The native writing system of Maya civilization. A 1. Wheelbarrow logosyllabic system in which some signs called 2. Umbrella logograms represent words or ideas while other 3. Fishing reel signs called syllabograms (phonograms) represent MAJOR DISCOVERIES sounds in the form of single syllables. 1. Gunpowder TZOLK’ IN 2. Porcelain 3. Paper money o A 260-day sacred calendar was used as a divinatory 4. Crossbow almanac throughout Mesoamerica, consisting of an 5. Suspension bridges internal structure of twenty day-names combined 6. Earthquake monitor with thirteen day-numbers. METALLURGY HAAB’ By 117 BCE, ironwork production was underway. By 1078, the o The 365-day solar calendar, it was divided into 18 Song Dynasty produced 125,000 tons of iron, using advanced named months (uinals) of 20 days plus one month of knowledge of the properties of iron and coal. 5 “nameless” days, called Uayeb. The nameless days Metallurgy was vital in hydraulic engineering, facilitating were considered extremely unlucky, causing the infrastructure growth across China. Ancient China as a Maya to observe them with fasting and sacrifices to hydraulic civilization, utilizing river systems for irrigation and deities. sustaining large populations. VIGESIMAL GRAND CANAL o It is derived from the Latin adjective vicesimus, The Grand Canal, not the Great Wall, was China’s greatest meaning 'twentieth'. It is the number system based infrastructure achievement. Represented the state's on 20 that the Mayan and other Mesoamerican engineering power by connecting smaller waterways with cultures used. The numerals consisted of only three major rivers, opening up trade and travel across vast regions. symbols: zero, represented as a shell shape; one, a dot; and five, a bar. MEDICINE CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS Traditional Chinese medicine was based on the balance of elements: fire, water, earth, wood, and the concept of yin o The ancient peoples of Mesoamerica meticulously and yang. Diseases were seen as caused by imbalances in observed the movements of celestial bodies, these forces. including the Sun, Moon, and planets. This knowledge was recorded in codices and monumental Treatment methods included: Acupuncture, acupressure, inscriptions, showcasing their advanced herbal remedies, exercise, and dietary prescriptions aimed at understanding of astronomy restoring balance and the flow of "chi" (vital energy). ARCHITECTURAL ALIGNMENTS MESO AMERICA o The Maya incorporated their advanced o A historical region and cultural area that begins in understanding of astronomy into their temples and the southern part of North America and extends to other religious structures. For example, the El Castillo the Pacific coast of Central America. pyramid at Chichen Itza is situated to align with the o Among the earliest complex civilizations was the sun during the spring and fall equinoxes. Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf Coast of 4 K’INICH JANAAB’ PAKAL o Israeli scientists developed capsule endoscopy, a pill- sized camera that visually examines the digestive o A prominent Maya ruler of Palenque, he reigned tract, and the Iron Dome air defense system that from 615 to 683 CE and is known for his extensive intercepts rockets. architectural projects, including the Temple of the Inscriptions, which housed his tomb. ASTRONOMY AND MEDICINE PACHACUTI o Muslim rulers promoted the translation of Greek texts and encouraged scientific exploration in fields o The ninth ruler of the Inca Empire, he transformed like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Cusco from a small kingdom into a vast empire in the 15th century. He is credited with significant military Significant advances were made in the applied conquests and the establishment of a new sciences like medicine, engineering, and surveying in administrative system. ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. MOCTEZUMA II SOCIETY AND CULTURE o The ninth tlatoani (ruler) of the Aztec Empire, he o The Arab civilization brought together Muslims, reigned from 1502 to 1520 CE and is known for his Christians, Jews, Arabians, Africans, Berbers, encounters with Spanish conquistadors, which led to Egyptians, and descendants of Phoenicians, the eventual fall of the Aztec Empire. Canaanites and others into a great cosmopolitan NEZAHUALCOYOTL melting pot. o A philosopher and poet, he was the tlatoani of Islam provided the dynamism while the Arabic Texcoco and played a crucial role in the formation of language provided the unifying bond that held this the Aztec Triple Alliance, significantly influencing diverse civilization together. Mesoamerican politics and culture. INVENTION OF ALPHABET MIDDLE EAST o The invention of the phonetic alphabet is perhaps o The Middle East is a geopolitical region that includes the greatest contribution of the Arabs to human the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, civilization. Iran, and Iraq. o This region is characterized by its historical MUHAMMAD significance, being the birthplace of major religions o The founder of Islam, he established a major such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and is often religious and political empire in the 7th century, referred to as the "cradle of civilization" due to the shaping the course of Arab civilization and beyond. emergence of early civilizations like Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt within its borders. CYRUS THE GREAT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY o The Persian king known for his progressive governance and respect for human rights, he o Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf ash-Shami founded the Achaemenid Empire, which became one alAsadi, a polymath from Damascus, made of the largest empires in history. important contributions to astronomy, including finding star coordinates and properties of vision like SALADIN reflection and refraction. o Renowned for his leadership during the Crusades, he o Ali Javan, an Iranian-born physicist, co-invented the is celebrated for his chivalrous conduct and efforts to gas laser, which is used in industrial cutting, welding, unite Muslim territories against the Crusaders. and laser surgery. o Tofy Mussivand, an Iranian-born medical engineer, HARUN AL-RASHID invented a device that can extract and analyze DNA o A prominent caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, his reign from a single skin cell, greatly enhancing forensic marked a golden age of culture and science in the capabilities. Islamic world. 5  INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) ALAN TURING o Information technology (IT) is the hardware and o Known as the father of theoretical computer science, software used to create, store, transmit, manipulate, Turing developed the Turing Test and conceptualized and display information and data. Metaphorically, it the Turing machine, laying foundational principles for is the lifeblood of the Information Age. On a high modern computing and artificial intelligence. level, it is anything and everything that has to do GRACE HOPPER with computing and communications. o Information technology (IT) meaning it uses o A pioneer in computer programming, Hopper computer systems or devices to access information. created the first compiler and contributed to the It is a combination of both information and development of COBOL, a major programming technology. This system is responsible for a large language that facilitated business computing. portion of any workforce, business operation, and ADA LOVELACE other personal access information comprising an individual's daily activities. It impacts our day-to-day o Often regarded as the first computer programmer, life gravely. Lovelace worked on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine and wrote the first algorithm intended for HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT machine processing. o In the 1960s and 1970s, the term information JAMES GOSLING technology (IT) was a little-known phrase that was used by those who worked in places like banks and o As the creator of the Java programming language, hospitals to store information. With the paradigm Gosling's work has been crucial for developing shift to computing technology and "paperless" applications across various computing platforms, workplaces, information technology has come to be particularly in the internet age. a household phrase. LINUS TORVALDS DIFFERENT TYPES o The creator of the Linux operating system, Torvalds 1. Hardware - Physical components of a computer has been a pivotal figure in the opensource system movement, influencing software development 2. Software - Set of instructions that operate practices globally. computers 3. Platform - Foundation for software to run on BUSINESS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (BIT) 4. Networks - Interconnected devices for o It focuses on applying computing concepts and communication and data exchange methodology to business practices. The goal is to use 5. Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) – digital technologies to solve business problems and Contracts for software communication streamline company operations. BIT can vary from 6. Data - Raw information processed by computers industry to industry, but common incentives include 7. Database - Structured collections of electronic data process automation and increased efficiency in 8. Data Storage - Techniques for retaining information business-to-business (B2B) and business-to- electronically consumer (B2C) communications. 9. Analytics - Process of examining data to gain insights 10. Content Delivery - Distributing website content CAREERS IN IT geographically o Software Developer TIM BERNERS – LEE o Data Scientist o Cybersecurity Specialist o The inventor of the World Wide Web, Berners-Lee o Network Engineer developed the first web browser and server, as well o IT Project Manager as HTML and HTTP. His work has revolutionized how o Database Administrator people access and share information online. 6