Intellectual Revolutions and Society PDF

# Intellectual Revolutions and Society ## Defining Science - Science as an idea. Includes ideas, theories, and all systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world. - Science as an intellectual activity. Encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and p...

# Intellectual Revolutions and Society ## Defining Science - Science as an idea. Includes ideas, theories, and all systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world. - Science as an intellectual activity. Encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process involves systematic observation and experimentation. - Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject, discipline, or field of study that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. - Science as a personal and social activity. It is a means to survive in and improve life. It is interwoven with people's lives. ## Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was the period of enlightenment when developments in the fields of science and mathematics transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence of modern science. This took place in Europe, which was started by the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus' book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres and ended with Isaac Newton. ## Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly accepted views about a subject, conventions about what direction the research should take and how it should be performed. The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes "the practices that define a scientific discipline at a certain point in time." Paradigms contain all the distinct, established patterns, theories, common methods and standards that allow us to recognize an experimental result as belonging to a field or not. Kuhn was interested in how the overarching theories we have of reality itself influence the models and theories we make about reality within that paradigm. The Kuhn Cycle is a scientific model that describes the process of scientific progress. It is characterized by the following steps: 1. **Pre-science:** This is the stage where scientists are trying to develop a new paradigm. 2. **Normal Science:** This is the stage where scientists work within an existing paradigm. 3. **Model Crisis:** This is the stage where anomalies begin to accumulate and the existing paradigm is challenged. 4. **Model Revolution:** This is the stage where a new paradigm emerges and replaces the old one. 5. **Model Drift:** This is the stage where the new paradigm is refined and extended. A paradigm dictates: - What is observed and measured - The questions we ask about those observations - How the questions are formulated - How the results are interpreted - How research is carried out - What equipment is appropriate It is very common for scientists to discard certain models or pick up emerging theories. But once in a while, enough anomalies accumulate within a field that the entire paradigm itself is required to change to accommodate them. Normal science is the step-by-step scientific process, which builds patiently upon previous research. Revolutionary science, often 'fringe science' questions the paradigm itself. Kuhn believed that a paradigm would make a sudden leap from one to the next, called a paradigm shift, where the new paradigm didn't build on the foundations of the old, but completely change the rules for that "building." ## Greek Cosmology - We began with the invention of the idea of a scientific theory by the pre-Socratic philosophers. - They attempted to find underlying and unchanging principles responsible for the constantly-changing phenomena of the everyday natural world. - The Greeks developed a cosmological theory with the Earth at the center and the planets, sun and moon embedded in spheres rotating around the earth. - The motions in the heavens were understood in terms of Aristotle's theory of motion The image depicts the Greek model of the universe: - **Top Story (heaven):** Olympus (home of the gods) - **Middle Story (earth):** Earth - **Bottom Story (Underworld):** Hades (abode of the dead), Tartarus, Chaos ## Copernican Revolution - 16th century - Nicholaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, challenged the Ptolemaic model. - He introduced the heliocentric model in a 40-page outline entitled COMMENTARIOLUS. - He formalized his model in the publication of his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolution of Celestial Spheres) in 1543. - HELIOCENTRISM which suggested that the center of the Solar System was not the Earth but actually the sun. He contradicted the GEOCENTRIC MODEL introduced by Ptolemy, where the earth is the center of the solar system. - This model was accepted by the people in a period called the BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY. The image shows the difference between the Ptolemaic and Copernican models of the universe: - **Ptolemaic:** Earth-centered, with the sun and other planets orbiting Earth on rotating spheres. - **Copernican:** Sun-centered, with Earth and other planets orbiting the sun. ## Darwinian Revolution - One of the most controversial intellectual revolutions - In 1859, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, biologist and geologist published his book, ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES - In this book, he introduced the theory of evolution that populations pass through a process of natural selection in which only the fittest would survive. - Darwin also stated that organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment and would gradually change into something that would be more competitive to survive, process known as evolution. The image depicts the process of natural selection: 1. **A population of mice has moved into a new area where the rocks are very dark.** Due to natural genetic variation, some mice are black, while others are tan. 2. **Tan mice are more visible to predatory birds than black mice.** Thus, tan mice are eaten at higher frequency than black mice. Only the surviving mice reach reproductive age and leave offspring. 3. **Because black mice had a higher chance of leaving offspring than tan mice, the next generation contains a higher fraction of black mice than the previous generation.** The image also shows four key steps of natural selection: 1. **Variation:** There is genetic variation within a population which can be inherited. 2. **Competition:** Overproduction of offspring leads to competition for survival. 3. **Adaptations:** Individuals with beneficial adaptations are more likely to survive to pass on their genes. 4. **Selection:** Over many generations, there is a change in allele frequency (evolution). The image of the giraffes illustrates the process of natural selection: 1. **Each species shows variation:** Different giraffes have different neck lengths. 2. **There is competition within each species for food, living space, water, mates etc.:** Giraffes with shorter necks struggle to reach food in trees. 3. **The "better adapted" members of these species are more likely to survive - "Survival of the Fittest":** Giraffes with longer necks can reach food and are more likely to survive. 4. **These survivors will pass on their better genes to their offspring who will also show this beneficial variation:** Giraffes with longer necks reproduce and pass on their traits to their offspring. - This theory was very much controversial as it is contradictory to the church teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator. - This led to people being divided based into their belief. But later on, it was not in fact against teachings of the church and both can coexist. ## Freudian Revolution - In the past, the field of psychology was always under philosophy. - Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a science. - 19th century Sigmund Freud was able to change people's perception of psychology with his revolutionary theory of PSYCHOANALYSIS. - PSYCHOANALYSIS is the study of human behavior. It is a scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one's personality, ringing from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual. - Freud explained that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence behavior and emotion. - He also argued that personality is a product of three conflicting elements: id, ego, superego. - Many believed that Freud's theory had no scientific basis as no empirical or experimental data could support it. - But still Freud continued his work, soon enough people were able to understand the concepts of psychoanalysis which eventually resulted in classifying psychology as a science. The image depicts the three parts of the psyche: * **Id:** Instincts * **Ego:** Reality * **Superego:** Morality The image shows the conflict between the id, ego, and superego: - **Id (Child):** "I want, I need, satisfy me!" - **Ego (Adult):** Caught in the middle, trying to balance the demands of the id and the superego. - **Superego (Parent):** "You can't! You must not! It's not allowed" ## Meso-America - It has contributed a lot of ideas or discoveries for Archeology. - The temples and pyramids left a lot of Architecture that leads us to study more of it. - The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. - These people are known for their works in astronomy. - They developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. - The Maya built hydraulics systems, with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities. - The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised rainbow of glittery paints from mineral called mica. - They are also believed to be the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844. - The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. - The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. - The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. - The Incas developed scientific ideas and tools that helped them in everyday life: - Roads paved with stones - Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters - Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land - Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season - The first suspension bridge - *Quipu*, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret - Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements ## The Aztec Civilization - The Aztecs made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society. Some of their contributions are the following: - Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education. - Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their Gods. - Antispadomic medication. They used a type of antispadomic medication that could prevent muscle spasms, and relax muscles, which could help during surgery. - Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals. - Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season. - Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems. ## Asian - The revolution itself taught Asian countries about freedom and independent nationhood along the improvement brought by it internally. - India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern boarders. - The Indians are known for manufacturing *iron* and in metallurgical works. - Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the Roman Empire. - They are also famous in medicine. - *Ayuverda* is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC and is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. - They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. - Some ancient texts, like *Susruta Samhita*, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in ancient India. - Ancient Indian is also notable in the field of astronomy. - They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. - They are also known for their mathematics. - *Aryabhata*, an Indian astronomer and mathematician in his *Aryabhatiya*, introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques as well as algorithms of algebra. ## China - One of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science. Mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music. - The Chinese are known for their traditional medicines. - They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. Acupuncture is an example. ## Middle East - The revolutions in the Middle East were a product of development and growth of individual nationalism, and imperialism for the efforts of westernize and modernize Middle Eastern societies, and to push the declining power of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab Region. - A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. - In Mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. ## African - The fight against colonialism and imperialism in Africa. - Egypt was known to be a center of *alchemy*, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. - Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of calendar: lunar, solar and stellar, or a combination of the three. ## The Age of Information - This has been the era in which technology has been prevalent. - It is also known as the COMPUTER AGE that has brought so much change on how we are living today.