Structuralism PDF

GROUP 2 I. STRUCTURALISM  Structuralism sought to analyze the adult mind (defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find the way in which these components fit together in complex forms. (Encyclopedia Brit...

GROUP 2 I. STRUCTURALISM  Structuralism sought to analyze the adult mind (defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find the way in which these components fit together in complex forms. (Encyclopedia Britannica)  Structuralism is a method of interpreting and analyzing such things as language, literature, and society, which focuses on contrasting ideas or elements of structure and attempts to show how they relate to the whole structure. (Collins Dictionary) I. TIME FRAME AND KEY ADVOCATES OF STRUCTURALISM Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, mainly in France and the Russian Empire. It developed in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague, Moscow and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. 1. Ferdinand De Saussure Structuralism in its inchoate form can be found in the theories of the early twentieth- century Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (Course in General Linguistics, 1916). He moved away from the then prevalent historical and philological study of language (diachronic) to the study of the structures, patterns and functions of language at a particular time (synchronic).  Language as a System: - Saussure compared language to a puzzle or a football team, where each part works together as a system. Language is not just a collection of words; it's an organized system of relationships between elements.  Langue and Parole: - Langue: The abstract, systematic rules and conventions of a language shared by a speech community. - Parole: The individual speech acts, or the actual use of language in concrete situations. - Saussure's distinction between langue and parole highlights the difference between the underlying system of language and its use in everyday communication.  Sign, Signifier, and Signified: - A sign is the basic unit of language, composed of the signifier (the sound or image) and the signified (the concept). 1  - The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent connection between the two. For example, the word "tree" (signifier) has no direct connection to the concept of a tree (signified).  Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics: - Synchronic Linguistics: The study of language at a specific point in time, focusing on the structure and function of language as it exists. - Diachronic Linguistics: The study of language through its historical development, examining how languages change over time. - Saussure emphasized the importance of synchronic analysis, arguing that understanding the structure of language at a given moment is crucial. Example: -The word "apple" can be analyzed synchronically by looking at its current meaning and usage, or diachronically by tracing its historical evolution from Old English to modern English. 2. Leonard Bloomfield An American linguist whose book Language (1933) was one of the most important general treatments of linguistic science in the first half of the 20th century and almost alone determined the subsequent course of linguistics in the United States.  Language as Behavior: - Bloomfield focused on language as observable behavior, studying what people actually say rather than what they think. - He aligned with behaviorism, viewing language as a set of behaviors that can be observed, analyzed, and measured.  Descriptive Linguistics: - Bloomfield advocated for describing language as it is used, without making judgments about correctness or prescribing rules. - His approach emphasized documenting real language usage, focusing on how people actually speak.  Breaking Down Language: - Morphemes: Bloomfield studied the smallest units of meaning in words. For example, the word "cats" consists of two morphemes: "cat" (indicating the animal) and "s" (indicating plural). - Sentence Structure: He analyzed how words are put together to form sentences, emphasizing the importance of understanding the structure. 2  Focus on Structure, Not Meaning: -Bloomfield prioritized analyzing the structure of sentences over their meaning, focusing on how sentences are constructed. - Example: In the sentence "The cat sits on the mat," Bloomfield would analyze the grammatical structure without focusing on the meaning of the sentence. These concepts highlight the foundational ideas of structuralism in linguistics, as pioneered by Ferdinand de Saussure and further developed by Leonard Bloomfield. 3. Luis Hjelmslev Is the author of a theory of language called glossematics, which inspired a great number of European semioticians. As a linguist, he was part of the Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen and was influential in the rapid development of scientific structuralism in the 1930s.  From “phoneme” to “glossematics”. -Glossematics is the system of linguistic analysis until its every smallest meaningful units of language  Theory on the “epistemology of linguistics”. -Epistemology the theory of knowledge wherein it has different categories which are propositional knowledge, practical knowledge and knowledge of acquaintance  The consistency and comprehensive theory of semiotics. -He also accepted Saussure’s idea that the language is a system of signs from the point of view of language use.  “Expression plane ” for signifiers where sign is manifested and “Content plane” for signified which is a physical manifestation of the sign. 4. Alf Sommerfelt Introduced structuralist linguistics to the Scandinavian countries, and was described by Malkiel as ‘a prominent Norwegian academician who felt very much at home in Paris’. A student of Antoine Meillet, he appears to have been regarded as an exemplary figure within linguistics. He made a number of studies of the Celtic languages Welsh, Breton and Irish based upon fieldwork in those languages.  “General Linguistics” -The study of phenomena, historical changes without restriction to a particular language such as (phonetics, grammar, stylistics and others). 5. Antoine Meillet Meillet’s seminal work, this comprehensive volume provides a detailed overview of the Indo-European language family, exploring its historical development, linguistic features, and comparative analysis. Drawing on extensive research and scholarly 3 expertise, Meillet offers insights into the relationships between various Indo-European languages, tracing their evolution from a common ancestral language. This foundational text remains essential reading for linguists seeking to understand the structural and typological characteristics of Indo-European languages.  Coined “grammaticalisation” which is the new function words to content words, nouns, verbs, affixes and prepositions.  Founded International Auxiliary Language which is meant for communication between people from different nations. 6. Émile Benveniste Often identified as one of the chief representatives of European linguistic structuralism. Even so, his view of language as subjective activity would seem to run counter to the supposedly objective approach which most often characterizes structuralism.  The I-You polarity which is the first and second person and in this the Third person acts under the conditions of possibility between the first and second person.  The distinction between the tied context and the independent context, for example: “enonce” the independent context and “enonciation” the tied context.  The discursive instance or “instance of discourse” is the theory of the language of Benveniste which is to see language itself. Language is presented as a systematic language following the order of arrangement, (phonetic, morphological or syntactic). 7. Claude Lévi-Strauss French social anthropologist and leading exponent of structuralism, a name applied to the analysis of cultural systems (e.g., kinship and mythical systems) in terms of the structural relations among their elements. Structuralism has influenced not only social science but also the study of philosophy, comparative religion, literature, and film. He analyzes deep structures, arranging the myth elements horizontally and vertically. Structuralist theory of mythology. Wherein there is no one “authentic” version of a myth. It needed to break the version of the myth down into a series of sentences.  A mythical thought always progresses from the awareness of oppositions toward their resolution.  Phonemic Analysis -Analyzing phonemes as a group of one or more sets of oppositions. II. CHARACTERISTICS IN LINGUISTICS 1. All of the parts to learning are interlaced. 4  2. They have meaning according to the way they interrelate 3. If these parts are in isolation, they don’t have the same meaning either. 4. To make sense, the parts must be working together. III. STRUCTURALISM IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 1. Meaning is determined by the context where the relationship among the parts take place. Meaning and context are inseparable; meaning is shaped by context and is influenced by the context in which it is employed. Words and phrases can have their meanings narrowed by context, which has an impact on how they are used in translation, instruction, and communication (Basile et al., 2019). In structuralism, the meaning of words is understood by how they function in a context. The functions of words within phrases or sentences are important because they determine the meaning of the words. 2. An emphasis on understanding grammatical structure such as sentence structure, patterns of sentences, and appropriate grammar and composition. The foundation of linguistic competency is grammar. Through the development of methods of language competencies, learners can master the rules and patterns of grammar. It helps children build sentences, increase their vocabulary, and use proper syntax, all of which improve their overall language skills (Verbalplanet, 2023). This makes sense in the topic of structuralism of language learning because to master the language, you need to master and be familiarized with its grammatical structure first. 3. Focus on four main skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. To ensure successful language learning, according to Sadiku (2015) the four fundamental skills of speaking, writing, listening, and reading must be integrated. In order to help learners meet expectations and improve their communicative abilities, these abilities should be developed gradually. Effective oral communication is facilitated by the simultaneous and interrelated functions of speaking and listening in everyday contexts. Writing and reading have a close connection and are both necessary for good written communication. Learners must be exposed to increasingly difficult reading materials and writing assignments in order to develop their reading and writing abilities. The goal is for learners to become proficient readers and writers. In relation to structuralism, these four skills are very important in mastering a language. It suggests that these skills should be practiced and developed systematically. 4. Language Forms as a Sign System In structuralism, language is understood as a sign system composed of signs, which consist of two main components. The first component called the signifier refers to 5 the physical form of the word or expression, which can be spoken, written, or signed. For example, the word "tree" is a signifier that represents a specific concept. The second component is the signified which refers to the concept or meaning that the signifier represents. In this case, the signified "tree" is the mental image or understanding of a tall, woody plant that typically has branches and leaves. However, it is important to note that this relationship between the signifier and the signified, according to Saussure’s theory, is arbitrary, meaning that there is no inherent connection between the two; rather, it is established through social convention and cultural understanding (Mambrol, 2018). Implication for language learning: a. Understanding signs: Language learners must recognize that each word or phrase is part of a larger system of signs. This understanding helps them grasp that changing one element can alter meaning. b. Contextual Meaning: The meaning of a word can change depending on its context within a sentence, emphasizing the importance of learning language in situational contexts. Structuralism posits that meaning is derived from the relationships between signs within a specific context, highlighting the necessity for learners to understand how context influences meaning (Irmawati, 2014). 5. Finding Relationships Between New and Previous Knowledge Structuralism posits that learning new language structures effectively involves relating them to existing knowledge. This principle emphasizes the importance of cognitive connections in the learning process Implication for language learning: a. Building on Prior Knowledge: When learners encounter new grammatical structures or vocabulary, they should be guided to connect these with what they already know. For instance, when learning past tense forms, students might relate them to present tense forms they have already mastered. As Howarth et al. (2000) suggests that this approach aligns with the structuralist view that emphasizes the interconnectedness of language elements and the importance of relating new information to existing knowledge. b. Cognitive Mapping: By creating mental maps of language structures, learners can better integrate new information, making it easier to recall and use in communication. Examples of such would be graphic organizers. This cognitive approach is supported by structuralism, which posits that understanding language involves recognizing the relationships between different components and how they interact within a system (Petrilli, 2006). 6 6. Reading and writing develop from the comprehension of the basic underlying grammatical structures of the system. Implication for Language learning: Grammar as a Foundation: A strong grasp of grammar provides the scaffolding necessary for learners to develop reading and writing skills. Understanding sentence structure, verb conjugations, and syntax is essential for both comprehension and composition. a. Integrated Skills Approach: Language instruction should integrate reading and writing with grammar instruction, allowing learners to see how grammatical rules apply in real texts and their own writing. IV. APPROACH  Audiolingualism- a linguistic, or structure-based,approach to language teaching claiming to have transformed language teaching from art into science. In 1992 Coleman suggested that American schools and colleges adopt a reading-based approach to foreign instruction, which would be preceded with a vocabulary list.During this time, linguists were getting more and more active in teaching English to non-native speakers. Due to these causes, the American method to ESL emerged, eventually evolving into audiolingualism by the middle of the 1950s. Types of Learning and Activities 1. Dialogue Repetition Goal: To memorize and internalize language patterns. Activity: Students repeatedly practice dialogues, focusing on pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm. 2. Substitution Drills Goal: To practice grammatical structures and vocabulary in different contexts. Activity: Students substitute words or phrases in a given sentence pattern to create new sentences. Example: Sentence: I like apples. Substitution: I like bananas. Substitution: She likes apples. 7 3. Transformation Drills Goal: To practice grammatical transformations (e.g., affirmative to negative, singular to plural). Activity: Students change sentences from one form to another. Example: Sentence: He is tall. Transformation: He is not tall. 4. Chain Drills Goal: To practice language in a continuous and spontaneous manner. Activity: Students form a chain and pass a sentence or phrase to the next person, who must respond appropriately. Example: Student 1: I have a dog. Student 2: What's your dog's name? Student 3: My dog's name is Max. 5. Role-Playing Goal: To practice language in real-life situations. Activity: Students take on different roles and act out scenarios. Example: Scenario: A customer is ordering food at a restaurant. Roles: Customer, waiter 6. Audio-Visual Aids Goal: To enhance language learning through visual stimuli. Activity: Students watch short films or listen to audio recordings while practicing language skills. These activities are designed to reinforce grammatical structures, improve pronunciation, and develop fluency in the target language. By engaging in repetitive practice and drills, students aim to form habits and automaticity in language use.  Linearity and Rule-Governed Language Production Linearity in language refers to the sequential arrangement of linguistic elements. We produce sounds, words, and phrases in a specific order when we speak or write. This order is not random but follows established rules. 8 Rule-governed means that the production of language elements is constrained by a set of rules or principles. These rules can be grammatical, phonological, or semantic. Combining these two concepts, the phrase "Elements in language are linearly produced in a rule-governed way" means that: Language is sequential: The elements of language (sounds, words, phrases) are arranged in a linear order. Language is systematic: The arrangement of these elements is not arbitrary but follows specific rules or patterns. Examples: Grammatical rules: "The cat chased the mouse" is a grammatically correct sentence because the elements are arranged in a specific order (subject-verb- object). Phonological rules: The pronunciation of words is governed by phonological rules, such as the rule that "s" is pronounced as /z/ before voiced consonants (e.g., "bags" is pronounced /bæɡz/). Semantic rules: The meaning of a sentence is determined by the semantic rules that govern how words combine to form meaning. Consequently, this phrase emphasizes the structured and systematic nature of language production, where elements are arranged in a linear sequence according to specific rules. Example: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." Linearity: The elements of the sentence are arranged in a specific order: "The" (article), "quick" (adjective), "brown" (adjective), "fox" (noun), "jumps" (verb), "over" (preposition), "the" (article), "lazy" (adjective), "dog" (noun). Rule-governed: The arrangement of these elements follows grammatical rules: - The subject ("The quick brown fox") comes before the verb. - The verb ("jumps") is followed by a prepositional phrase ("over the lazy dog"). - Adjectives typically precede the noun they modify (e.g., "quick brown fox"). This sentence demonstrates how language elements are produced in a linear sequence and are constrained by grammatical rules. 9  Pyramidical Structure of Linguistics Levels Breakdown of the linguistic levels and their relation to each other: 1. Phonemes: The smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning in a language. For example, the /p/ and /b/ sounds in the words "pin" and "bin" are phonemes. 2. Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. Morphemes can be free-standing words (e.g., "cat") or parts of words (e.g., the "-s" in "cats"). 3. Lexemes: The basic units of vocabulary in a language. A lexeme is a word or phrase that represents a concept or idea (e.g., "run" is a lexeme that can be used as a verb or a noun). 10  4. Syntax: The rules governing the combination of words into phrases and sentences. Syntax determines the structure of sentences and how words relate to each other. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in language. Semantics deals with the relationship between linguistic expressions and the concepts or objects they refer to. 6. Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in context. Pragmatics considers factors such as speaker intent, context, and social conventions that influence language use. The pyramidical structure of linguistic levels implies that: Phonemes are the building blocks of morphemes. Morphemes combine to form lexemes. Lexemes are organized according to syntactic rules. Semantic meaning is derived from the combination of lexemes and syntactic structure. Pragmatic factors influence how semantic meaning is interpreted in context. V. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF STRUCTURALISM Strengths 1. Helps young English learners grasp grammar in an easier way to learn. 2. Support proper use of the language in verbal and written expression. 3. Knowledge of the foundation of the basic structure before complex grammar. 4. Students discover learning (inductive method goes from the parts to the whole). Weaknesses 1. As students grow up it becomes more difficult to learn using this structure because they have already learned in a different way. 2. Creativity in writing tends to wait until the students master the structures of language. 11 VI. REFERENCES Admin. (2024). Antoine meillet. The Philosophy Room. https://www.thephilroom.com/blog/2024/08/05/antoine-meillet/ Bloomfield, Leonard. (1933). Language. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Basile, V., Caselli, T., & Radicioni, D. P. (2019). Meaning in Context: Ontologically and linguistically motivated representations of objects and events. Applied Ontology, 14(4), 335–341. https://doi.org/10.3233/ao-190221 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024). Claude Lévi-Strauss. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claude-Levi-Strauss Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024). structuralism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/structuralism-psychology Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024). Leonard Bloomfield. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonard-Bloomfield Doddy Irmawati, N. (2014). Structural Linguistics and its Implication to Language Teaching. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature (IJSELL), 2(8), 116– 130. https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijsell/v2-i8/13.pdf Fought, John. (2003). "Leonard Bloomfield and the American Linguistic Tradition." In The Handbook of Linguistics, edited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 33-55. Howarth, P., Howarth, P. R., Norris, C., & Ruhe, V. (2000). The philosophy of structuralism in language and linguistics. Russian Journal of Linguistics, 4, 24-29. https://rrlinguistics.ru/en/journal/article/583/ Laplantine, C. (2023). Émile Benveniste on the relation between linguistic and social structures. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 267–297). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849045.003.0008 Mambrol, N. (2019, November 21). Key Theories of Ferdinand de Saussure. Literary Theory and Criticism. Marchand, M. (n.d.). Louis Hjelmslev : Biography and Bibliography / Signo - Applied Semiotics Theories. Signo - Louis Hebert. http://www.signosemio.com Moored. (2018). Primitive Languages: linguistic determinism and the description of Aranda eighty years on. History and Philosophy of the Language Sciences. https://hiphilangsci.net/2017/12/06/primitive-languages/ Petrilli, S. (2006). Structure and Structuralism: Semiotic approaches. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 178–192). https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/01457- 7https://literariness.org/2018/03/12/key-theories-of-ferdinand-de-saussure/ Sadiku, L. M. (2015). The importance of four skills: reading, speaking, writing, and listening in a lesson hour. European Journal of Language and Literature, 1(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejls.v1i1.p29-31 Structuralism: Theories of Ferdinand de Saussure | typinks. (2023, October 13). Typinks. https://www.typinks.com/structuralism-theories-of-ferdinand-de-saussure/ Saussure, Ferdinand de. (1983). Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, in collaboration with Albert Riedlinger, translated by Roy Harris. Open Court Publishing. Verbalplanet. (2023). The importance of grammar in learning a foreign language. https://www.verbalplanet.com/blog/the-importance-of-grammar-in-learning-foreign- languages\ 12