SSC 103 Prelim Notes MS Word.pdf

The Life and Works of Jose Rizal (SSC 103) PRELIMS COURSE DESCRIPTION: As mandated by Republic Act 1425, this course covers the life and works of our national hero,...

The Life and Works of Jose Rizal (SSC 103) PRELIMS COURSE DESCRIPTION: As mandated by Republic Act 1425, this course covers the life and works of our national hero, Jose Rizal. Among the topics covered are Rizal’s biography and writings, particularly Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, some of his essays, and various correspondences. Topics for the Prelims  Introduction to the Course: Republic Act 1425  19th Century Philippines as Rizal’s Context  Rizal’s Life: Family, Childhood and Early Education  Rizal’s Life: Higher Education and Life Abroad Introduction to the Course: Republic Act 1425 Why Study Rizal as a Subject? It is mandated by law. The lessons in the course such as: 1. Recognizing the importance of Rizal's life, works and writings in the present society. 2. Cultivating the application of Rizal’s ideals in the current social and personal problems and issues. 3. Enhancing appreciation and deeper understanding of all that Rizal fought and died for. 4. Encouraging development of the Filipino youth’s participation in all aspects of good governance and good citizenship. Republic Act 1425 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 1425 AN ACT TO INCLUDE IN THE CURRICULA OF ALL PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES COURSES ON THE LIFE, WORKS AND WRITINGS OF JOSE RIZAL, PARTICULARLY HIS NOVELS NOLI ME TANGERE AND EL FILIBUSTERISMO, AUTHORIZING THE PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION THEREOF, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES WHEREAS, today, more than any other period of our history, there is a need for a re-dedication to the ideals of freedom and nationalism for which our heroes lived and died; WHEREAS, it is met that in honoring them, particularly the national hero and patriot, Jose Rizal, we remember with special fondness and devotion their lives and works that have shaped the national character; WHEREAS, the life, works, and writing of Jose Rizal, particularly his novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, are a constant and inspiring source of patriotism with which the minds of the youth, especially during their formative and decisive years in school, should be suffused; WHEREAS, all educational institutions are under the supervision of and subject to regulation by the State, and all schools are enjoined to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience and to teach the duties of citizenship; Now, therefore, SECTION 1. Courses on the life, works, and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his novel Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, shall be included in the curricula of all schools, colleges, and universities, public or private: Provided, That in the collegiate courses, the original or unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo or their English translation shall be used as basic texts. The Board of National Education is hereby authorized and directed to adopt forthwith measures to implement and carry out the provisions of this Section, including the writing and printing of appropriate primers, readers, and textbooks. The Board shall, within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act, promulgate rules and regulations, including those of a disciplinary nature, to carry out and enforce the provisions of this Act. The Board shall promulgate rules and regulations providing for the exemption of students for reasons of religious belief stated in a sworn written statement, from the requirement of the provision contained in the second part of the first paragraph of this section; but not from taking the course provided for in the first part of said paragraph. Said rules and regulations shall take effect thirty (30) days after publication in the Official Gazette. SECTION 2. It shall be obligatory for all schools, colleges, and universities to keep in their libraries an adequate number of copies of the original and unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as of Rizal’s other works and biography. The said unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo or their translations in English, as well as other writings of Rizal, shall be included in the list of approved books for required reading in all public or private schools, colleges, and universities. The Board of National Education shall determine the adequacy of the number of books, depending upon the enrollment of the school, college, or university. SECTION 3. The Board of National Education shall cause the translation of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as other writings of Jose Rizal into English, Tagalog, and the principal Philippine dialects; cause them to be printed in cheap, popular editions; and cause them to be distributed, free of charge, to persons desiring to read them, through the Purok organizations and Barrio Councils throughout the country. SECTION 4. Nothing in this Act shall be construed as amendment or repealing section nine hundred twenty-seven of the Administrative Code, prohibiting the discussion of religious doctrines by public school teachers and other person engaged in any public school. SECTION 5. The sum of three hundred thousand pesos is hereby authorized to be appropriated out of any fund not otherwise appropriated in the National Treasury to carry out the purposes of this Act. SECTION 6. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. Approved: June 12, 1956 Published in the Official Gazette, Vol. 52, No. 6, p. 2971 in June 1956. 19th Century Philippines as Rizal’s Context 19th Century Philippines The essence of Jose Rizal's life is marked by the conditions that existed during his lifetime in the Philippines and worldwide, particularly in Europe. Rizal is a product of his era, and his message sets forth a human declaration that all human beings without any distinction of any kind are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The 19th century stands out as an extremely dynamic and creative age, especially in Europe and the United States. During this period, such concepts as industrialism, democracy, and nationalism gained ascendancy and triggered revolutionary changes in science, technology, economics, and politics. These changes enabled man to achieve the heights of prosperity and dignity unattained before it. However, the 19th-century Philippines was largely medieval, although signs of progress or change were noted in certain sectors. Its social and economic structure was based on the old feudalistic patterns of abuse and exploitation of the Indio. Its censorship and racially discriminatory practices were oppressive. Intellectual decadence prevailed, and government processes had no respect for the needs of the people. The earlier clamor for reforms had remained unheeded; social discontent confused the people. Educated members of the middle class who went abroad stepped right into the currents of modern liberalism and the dynamism and creativity of the new era of the Western European continent. These foreign contacts and the feudal Philippine conditions profoundly influenced the development of a sense of nationhood among the Filipinos. In the late 18th century, European political and economic changes were finally beginning to affect Spain and, thus, the Philippines and its other colonies. The gradual elimination of the monopoly enjoyed by the galleon to Acapulco was important as a stimulus to trade. The last galleon arrived in Manila in 1815, and by the mid-1830s, Manila was open to foreign merchants almost without restriction. The demand for Philippine sugar and abaca grew, and the volume of exports to Europe expanded even further after the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869. The growth of commercial agriculture resulted in the appearance of a new class. Alongside the landholdings of the church and the rice estates of the pre-Spanish nobility, there arose haciendas of coffee, hemp, and sugar, which often were the property of enterprising Chinese-Filipino mestizos. Some families that gained prominence in the 19th century have continued to play an important role in the Philippine economy and politics. Education in the 19th Century Philippines Not until 1863 was there public education in the Philippines, and even then, the church controlled the curriculum. Less than one-fifth of those who went to school could read and write Spanish, and far fewer could speak it properly. The limited higher education in the colony was entirely under clerical direction, but by the 1880s, many sons of wealthy families were sent to Europe to study. There, nationalism and a passion for reform blossomed in the liberal atmosphere. Out of this talented group of overseas Filipino students arose what came to be known as the Propaganda Movement. Magazines, poetry, and pamphleteering flourished. José Rizal, this movement’s most brilliant figure, produced two political novels: Noli Me Tangere (1886; Touch Me Not) and El Filibusterismo (1891). The Reign of Greed-which had a wide impact in the Philippines. In 1892 Rizal returned home and formed the Liga Filipina, a modest reform-minded society loyal to Spain that breathed no word of independence. But Rizal was quickly arrested by the overly fearful Spanish, exiled to a remote island in the south, and finally executed in 1896. Meanwhile, within the Philippines, a firm commitment to independence among a somewhat less privileged class had developed. Shocked by the arrest of Rizal in 1892, these activists quickly formed the Katipunan under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio, a self-educated warehouseman. The Katipunan was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands, and preparations were made for armed revolt. Filipino rebels had been numerous in the history of Spanish rule. Still, now for the first time, they were inspired by nationalist ambitions and possessed the education needed to make success a real possibility. Economic Situation of the 19th Century Philippines One cannot fully understand Rizal’s thoughts without understanding the social and political context of the 19th century. Social scientists marked the 19th century as the birth of modern life as well as the birth of nation-states worldwide. The birth of modernity was precipitated by three great revolutions worldwide: the Industrial revolution in England, the French Revolution, and the American Revolution. Galleon Trade The Galleon Trade was the longest-running shipping line of its time which existed for roughly 150 years. It carried silver, gold, spices, silk, and fashionable objects between 1565- 1815. As Nick Joaquin noted, “…the first medium to reduce the world to a village.” Items from all over the globe docked in Manila Bay and were stored in the Almacenes Reales, which you will still find in Fort Santiago, Intramuros. Using the route discovered by Fray Andres de Urdaneta, a well-known circumnavigator before his stint as an Augustinian priest, the galleons (one galleon at a time) plied the trans-pacific from the Philippines to Mexico. Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route On November 21, 1564, the San Pedro, along with the San Pablo and two smaller boats, the San Lucas and San Juan, left Mexico. And as they first set foot on our islands, they noticed something about our country and people; we had a fantastic trading system. Ferdinand Magellan and his cohorts had the same experience when they arrived in 1521. We were trading not only with our Southeast Asian neighbors but also with China. Junks would arrive with boatloads of rich silk, damask, and goods from the Orient, and it was further divided and traded around the islands. According to Senor Guillermo Gómez Rivera, Philippine Honorary President of Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila, there is an account of Juan De Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, rescuing the Chinese from a brawl with Filipinos in Taal, Batangas. He and his grandfather refitted the boats and sent them off to China; the Chinese soon came back with riches of the Orient, which proved to be precious in the European Market. In his book, after the Galleons, Benito Legarda cited that ninety percent of goods arriving in the Philippines were Mexican silver headed for China during the galleon trade. In those times, a piece of gold in China was equivalent to six to eight pieces of silver, while in Europe, a piece of gold was equivalent to thirteen pieces of silver. If one does the math, it can make a very large profit from China. Silver was king, and it was also the primary payment source around the globe, in the form of silver pesos. The bulk of items leaving the Philippines was silk, damask, and porcelain of Chinese origin, and ten percent were sourced from the Philippines, such as gold, pearls, and plants. And that is why today, when we find bits of the Galleons, such as the San Diego in Nasugbu, you will find not one but hundreds of porcelain jars that were supposed to be headed for Europe but are now in the hands of our parents, grandparents, and antique dealers (Aquino, 2010). The Spanish government declared Manila as the center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico. Thus, the Manila-Acapulco Trade, better known as the “Galleon Trade,” was born. The Galleon Trade was a government monopoly. Only two galleons were used: One sailed from Acapulco to Manila with some 500,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 120 days at sea; the other sailed from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 90 days at sea. Manila Galleon Manila galleons (1565 to 1815) were large Spanish ships that sailed across the Pacific between New Spain (Mexico) and the Philippines. They allowed Spain to trade with East Asia without using Portuguese trade routes. They brought the first Asians to arrive in North America after Columbus. In 1494, after Columbus confirmed the existence of the Americas, Pope Alexander VI issued “Inter Caetera,” dividing the Americas between Portugal and Spain, which they interpreted as applying to the whole non-Christian world. It gave Portugal the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, while Spain got any it discovered in the Pacific Ocean. In 1521 Magellan discovered a westward route, catching the Pacific currents that go west along the equator. In the Philippines, on the island of Cebu, Magellan commanded local chieftains to provide him with food and to convert to Christianity. Lapu-Lapu fought back and killed Magellan and most of his men. Only 18 made it back to Spain alive. In 1565 Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the eastward route by sailing along the Kuroshio Current near Japan north of the 38th parallel and then catching the westerlies to bring him east across the Pacific. He landed in the Americas near Cape Mendocino in what is now known as Humboldt County, California. From there, he followed the coast south to Acapulco, Mexico. These discoveries led to the Manila Galleon Trade. The Spanish traded with Japan, Taiwan, Fujian province of Ming Dynasty China, Macau, East Timor, and the Spice Islands (eastern Indonesia). Most Manila galleons were built in the Philippines and manned by Filipino crews. Chinese merchants would also board these ships, sometimes bringing goods from Mexico back to China. Goods from Asia bound for Europe had to cross overland to reach the Atlantic Ocean. One way was across Mexico from Acapulco to Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and the other way was to follow the coast south to the Isthmus of Panama and cross there. From Veracruz, Spanish galleons (“treasure fleet”) would travel to ports around the Gulf of Mexico, including Florida, and then ride the Gulf Stream across the Atlantic to Spain. Some Filipino crew and Chinese merchants joined the galleons leaving Veracruz. (Veracruz was also where most Afro-Mexicans lived.) The Manila galleons tried to avoid landing near the foggy, rugged northern California coast, preferring to stop in Point Conception (near Santa Barbara) or even Cabo San Lucas in Baja California on the way to Acapulco. However, a more permanent way station was established in Monterey Bay in the mid-18th century. The Manila galleons brought the first post-Columbian record of Asians in North America:  In 1587, Filipinos landed in California at Morro Bay near San Luis Obispo, 33 years before the Mayflower.  In 1595, a galleon shipwrecked near Point Reyes just north of the San Francisco Bay; survivors swam to shore.  Chinese settlement in California goes back to at least the 17th century. The word Filipino did not exist back then. Many Mexicans referred to them as ”Chino.” Opening of the Suez Canal Suez Canal is one of the most important waterways in the world. The Canal was opened in 1869, and it is 163 kilometers long. It connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea and significantly shortens the road between South Asia and Europe. Arabic, Egyptian, and some European (like British, French, etc.) societies benefited from this canal with its help over-irrigation, transportation, and strategic military advantages. The importance of the Suez Canal built up diplomatic crises and sometimes wars between societies throughout history. Although Suez Canal is just a waterway between two continents, it symbolizes much more value (strategic place, economic advantage, a road through the global world, etc.) to powerful country leaders of every century. It is one of the most important waterways in the world. Arabia, Egypt, and some European countries benefited from this canal with its help over-irrigation and strategic military advantages. Because of the privileged location of the Suez Canal, there have been diplomatic crises and sometimes wars among societies throughout history. In 1854 a French company took the right to construct a canal between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. It was the most important attempt to build up a canal. In 1859, the construction started, and it lasted for ten years. After ten years of construction, the dreams of Napoleon and Muhammad Ali of Egypt became true. The canal gave Egypt strategic importance as well as economic growth. However, the construction of the Suez Canal did not bring peace to the area. British forces occupied Egypt just after the canal’s opening for roughly a hundred years. Importance Suez Canal decreases the road between Europe and South Asia from 16000 km (travel from the Cape of Good Hope) to 10000 km. It refers to reduced fuel payments for companies, transportation of products in fewer days, and growing economies worldwide. If we think that around 80% of world trade is via waterways, it would be easier for us to imagine the effect of the Suez Canal on the economy. The canal, with saving distance, reduces the operational and fixed costs of companies and decreases the number of days that products are transported. Because the Suez Canal has a privileged geographic location, this is a very important element for maritime transport, one of the cheapest means of transportation and considering that over 80% of world trade is operated through waterways. Ships transiting the canal can save time, distance, and operating costs. Suez Canal can be expanded and deepened when necessary; thus, it adapts to the evolution of the sizes and weights of ships. In Europe, Suez Canal is very important for the oil and trade with Asia because it reduces its distance from this country. Therefore, companies reduce fuel payments, spend fewer days transporting their products, and grow the world economies. Most developing countries are located in the Middle East and Asia; accordingly, the developed countries of Europe establish factories within these borders because these countries have cheap labor. On the other hand, the United States needs the Suez Canal for transporting troops and military equipment to Afghanistan. Egypt produces little oil but occupies a strategic position on the international sea shipping route of oil barrels between the Arabian Peninsula and Western countries. It controls the Suez Canal and Suez-Mediterranean oil pipeline, which passes 3,000 million barrels daily through these two infrastructures. Egypt, through this canal, has power in the world economy due to taxes it receives from ships transiting there. Because Egypt needs a labor force to repair the coastlines’ erosion and defend them against other countries, it hires the Egyptian society to perform these tasks and thus reduces the unemployment rate in the country. In conclusion, the Suez Canal has been. It will remain a strategic point for the development of world trade because it allows commercial exchange between developing and developed countries generating employment opportunities, allowing the transport of food and other products indispensable for the progress of a country. Impact of the Suez Canal on the Philippines The opening on November 17, 1869, of the Suez Canal in Egypt, one of the world’s most important artificial sea-level waterways, paved the way for the Philippines’ direct commercial relations with Spain instead of via Mexico. As travel time from the Philippines to Spain and vice versa was shortened to 30 days from more than two months, this positively affected the development of agricultural exports, which brought economic prosperity to native Indios or the so-called illustrados (Filipinos with money and education). This development also paved the way for Filipino illustrados to send their children to universities in Europe. The rise of the illustrados was inevitable, and they became the new patrons of the arts that led to the secularization of arts in the 19th century. The Suez Canal was often called the “crossroads of Europe, Africa, and Asia” because the route was used to transport goods to and from all three continents. The new route was built for 10 years by a French company led by Ferdinand de Lesseps. Before its opening in 1869, goods were sometimes offloaded from ships and carried overland between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Another significance of the opening of the Suez Canal was it enabled the importation of books, magazines, and newspapers with liberal ideas from Europe and America, which eventually influenced the minds of Jose Rizal and other Filipino reformists. Political thoughts of liberal thinkers like Jean Jacques Rousseau (Social Contract), John Locke (/two Treatises of Government), Thomas Paine (Common Sense), and others entered the country (Maguigad & Muhi 2001). Moreover, the shortened route encouraged more and more Spaniards and Europeans with liberal ideas to come to the Philippines and interact with Filipino reformists. The opening of this canal in 1869 further stimulated the local economy, which gave rise-as already mentioned above–to the creation of the middle class of mestizos and illustrados in the 19th century. The shortened route also encouraged the illustrados led by Rizal to pursue higher studies abroad and learn liberal and scientific ideas in the universities of Europe. Their social interaction with liberals in foreign lands influenced their thinking on politics and nationhood. The Philippines and the World Trade The decades from 1820 to 1870 were crucial in the economic history of the world and produced significant changes in the country’s economy. An increase in trade and navigation in Asia accompanied the opening of the Suez Canal. Goods like sugar, fibers, coffee, etc., became the main export commodities. The Spanish government granted shipping subsidies. As a result, there was “a saltatory rise in the level of foreign trade in the Philippines.” These events and trends were common to the Southeast Asian transformations from subsistence to export economies. However, the trajectory followed by the Islands was different from the Southeast Asian path. The economies of the region’s colonial powers tried to increase agricultural output, thus, pressuring the peasants to produce more goods for export and to develop plantation agriculture. According to Legarda, between 1820 and 1870: “neither pressure on the peasantry nor the development of large-scale plantation agriculture was primarily responsible for transforming the Philippines from subsistence to an export economy.” Foreign businesses played such a role that “they formed the main nexus between the Philippine economy and the currents of world trade.” The foreign merchants introduced agricultural machinery and advanced money on crops which stimulated the opening of new agricultural areas, and consequently, exports grew. There was an increasing commodity concentration of exports (sugar, abaca, tobacco, and coffee) to the United Kingdom, China, British East Indies, United States, and Spain. Textiles dominated imports, accompanied by a decline in local manufacturing, and in 1870 rice became an import commodity. “Both trends had significant social and demographic repercussions.” British and Americans were predominant in foreign trade, and the Chinese occupied the position of intermediaries between foreign western merchants and the domestic market. Despite the dominant presence of foreigners in the Philippine economy, “a native middle class was rising.” To raise funds, the merchant houses issued notes taking deposits in local currencies from people of different economic backgrounds. This capital was given as an advance to finance agricultural operations. “Liquid wealth” reached Filipinos in the countryside; at the same time, the merchants’ exercised control over the supply of export commodities. The Philippines’ economic landscape differed from Southeast Asia, i.e., Malaya and Indonesia. Western foreigners, public entities, and the Chinese joined rising domestic entrepreneurs. The Spanish government participated financially in the origination of utility companies (steam navigation, telegraphy); western investors entered some joint ventures with local capital (rice, sugar mills, textile industry, railroads and electricity), and domestic businessmen invested in the tramways and created the brewing industry. “But the crucial dichotomy between economic initiative and political authority stamped the Philippine case as being more in the East Asian tradition than the Southeast Asian mold.” This process of economic integration in the world market had its drawbacks; income disparities between regions and occupations became more marked. The domestic textile industry could not compete with imports. During the 1880s, ‘the decade of death,’ the lower income groups became more susceptible to diseases due to an imbalance between commercial and subsistence agriculture and due to the arrival of the epidemic. The upside of these transformations was improved communications (telegraphy, mail, cable, steamship lines, electricity, railroads), finance (foreign banks arrived in Manila), and infrastructure. The funds of the Obras Pias, a church institution employed in the past to finance the galleon trade, were used to establish the Banco Espanol-Filipino in 1851 and the Monte de Piedad (a savings bank and a pawn shop) in 1882. In the same year, with Obras Pias’ monies coming from the cargo of the galleon Filipino, a municipal water system was built in Manila (Legarda, 1999). Social Structure During the 19th Century Social Structure Philippine society was predominantly feudalistic the results of the Spanish land-holding system imposed upon the country with the arrival of the conquistadores. An elite class exploited the masses, fostered by the “master-slave” relationship between the Spaniards and the Filipinos. The Spaniards exacted all forms of taxes and tributes and drafted the natives for manual labor. Consequently, the poor became poorer and the rich wealthier. Apex: Spanish Peninsulares – The Peninsulares exclusively controlled top-level administrative, civil and ecclesiastical positions in the colony, and they were close to the Insulares on Spanish Peninsulares – Limpieza de Sangre (Pure Blood) – those Spaniards born in Spain occupying the highest position in the social structure together with other Europeos on non-Spanish Europeans. Spanish Insulares Hijos del Pais (Sons of the Country) – those Spaniards born in the Philippines to full- blooded Spanish parents. During the colonial period, the term “Filipino” was reserved for this group. They are slightly inferior to the peninsulares because of the distinction of having been born on Philippine Island; thus, their Spanish blood was tainted by their place of birth. The Peninsulares controlled top-level administrative, civil and ecclesiastical positions in the colony and were close to the Insulares on the basis of Limpieza de Sangre. Due to their inferior status, they felt that as the Hijos del Pais or Sons of the Country, they were more deserving of these positions than the peninsulares, calling for reforms and autonomy in the Spanish Cortes (Spanish Congress). Middle: Spanish Mestizos– offspring of Spanish father and Indio mother Mestizo de Sangleyes – offspring of Spanish-Chinese parents Mestizos Indios – offspring of Chinese-Indio mixtures Economic prosperity could grant social mobility through acquiring higher education and learning the Spanish language and their culture, but money could never buy purity “Limpieza de Sangre.” Thus peninsulares can still use their “purity of blood” to look down and belittle the wealthy Indios, Chinese, or mestizo merchants who are disdainfully called “bestias cargadas de oro” (beast laden with gold) or “perras mercantiles” (merchant dogs). Base: Indios are native of the country Indio Natural– refers to the natives of the island, originated from the Malay race and are considered as today’s Filipino. Plain Indios – those natives who had converted to Roman Catholicism and settled in a town under Spanish jurisdiction (reduccion system) or town under the bajo las campanas (under the sound of the bell). The highest position available to plain Indios is Gobernadorcillo. Infieles – refers to the pagans who resisted the indoctrination and lived outside the Spanish control maintaining their culture, religion, and lifeways. Spanish authorities called them into different names like salvajes, remontados, ladrones, tulisanes, and barbaros. Indio Sangleye – the pure-blooded Chinese or Japanese who arrived in the Philippines to trade and escaped the hegemony of dynasties and shoguns. It is the lowest within the social structure. The growing middle class towards the middle of the 19th century keenly felt intellectual disintegration. The intellectual decadence was caused by an inadequate educational system imposed on the people. For almost three hundred years since the Spaniards established the first settlement in the Philippines, there was no systematic government supervision of schools. The schools were free to administer their curricula and prescribe the qualifications of their teachers. The most severe criticisms against the system were the overemphasis on religious matters, obsolete teaching methods, limited curriculum, poor classroom facilities, and the absence of teaching materials, such as books. Primary education was neglected; the absence of academic freedom, the prejudice against Filipinos in the schools of higher learning, and the friar control over the system were also reported. The friars inevitably occupied a dominant position in the Philippine educational system, for religion was the main subject in the schools. Fear of God was emphasized, and obedience to the friars was instilled in the people’s minds. They were constantly reminded that they had inferior intelligence and were fit only for manual labor. Over the centuries, these practices resulted in a lack of personal confidence and an inferiority complex. The absence of academic freedom in Spain’s educational system was extended to the schools that the Spaniards established in the Philippines. Learning at every level was largely by rote, and students memorized and repeated the contents of books they did not understand. In most cases, knowledge was measured in terms of the ability of the students to memorize, largely hampering intellectual progress. Teacher discrimination against Filipinos was present in some higher learning schools, although not at the Ateneo. These schools were not open to the natives until the later decades of the Spanish period. The Spaniards hesitated to consider the Indios as educable as they did, and the Filipino students were frequently subjected to humiliation and discrimination. At the end of the Spanish period, the College of San Juan de Letran was the only official secondary school in the Philippines. However, secondary education was also offered at the Ateneo de Manila. Seven provinces had “private colleges” and “Latin schools” for general studies, five colleges in Manila, Santa Isabel, La Concordia, Santa Rosa, Looban, and Santa Catalina, and another five in the provinces furnished secondary education for girls. Up to the end of the Spanish regime, the University of Santo Tomas was the only university-level institution in Manila. Initially established solely for Spaniards and mestizos, it opened its doors to Filipino students four decades before the end of Spanish rule. Another group of schools in the Philippines then was the theological seminaries found in Manila, Cebu, Jaro, Nueva Caceres, and Nueva Segovia, maintained by Jesuits, Paulists, and Augustinians.” Filipino seminarians were not admitted to such schools until late during the Spanish regime. The training of Filipino diocesan priests was generally geared toward their roles as assistants only to the Spanish priests. This was part of the Spanish colonial policy that did not attempt to train the Filipinos for ultimate independence. Their philosophic systems made the students automatic machines rather than practical men prepared to battle with life. By 1855, the Spanish colonial authorities realized the need to establish a public education system for the Indios. That year Governor Crespo organized a commission to study and recommend remedial measures to improve elementary education in the Philippines. The commission completed its work after six years, and in 1861, the report was forwarded to Spain. Based on this report and its recommendations, the Educational Decree of 20 December 1863 was issued. In compliance with this decree, each major town in the Philippines was to establish at least one primary school for boys and another for girls. Teachers of the primary schools were trained at a normal school for men, which opened in 1865. Placed under the supervision of the Jesuits, this school started as the Escuela Normal Elemental, and by 1893, it was training male teachers for work in secondary schools. Spanish was to be the medium of instruction in all schools. The Educational Decree of 1863 marked a milestone in the history of education in the Philippines under Spain. For the first time, provisions were made for establishing teacher training schools and government supervision of the public school system. Paradoxically, the friars assigned to implement the educational decrees from Spain were among the most vocal of the Spanish elements against the teaching of Spanish in the Philippines. They believed that the Spanish language knowledge would encourage the people to oppose Spanish rule. The Illustrados cannot be kept long in suppression. The Filipinos must therefore be kept in the dark to remain isolated from the intellectual ferment of the times; otherwise, they might be inspired by the new ideas of freedom and independence. The government’s support for this friar attitude is understandable, for the interests of Spain and the Spaniards were at stake. It explains why books read by the Filipino people had to pass through rigid censorship of church authorities and the government. To safeguard their own interests, the friars were upset with whatever noble intentions Spain had for improving the Philippine educational system. Friars blocked the implementation of the Madrid orders regarding education. The government in Spain issued Moret Decree of 1870, which intended to secularize higher education in the colony. The friars strongly opposed the idea of government control over higher education in the Philippines. This bitter opposition, coupled with the political developments in Spain, made implementing the Moret Decree impossible. Under such conditions, some Filipinos like Rizal strongly felt the need to continue their education abroad. Recorded instances of student unrest are obvious proof that the country’s educational system was defective and that there was a growing need for change. One such instance was the student petition led in 1870 by Felipe Buencamino at the University of Santo Tomas. Undoubtedly inspired by the Moret Decrees, the students circulated anonymous letters criticizing the Dominican methods of instruction, clamored for better professors, and demanded government control. Moreover, they suggested keeping the university abreast of academic developments in Spain. The authorities took the petition as subversive, and persons involved were sought though no one was found guilty of conspiring against the government. While social, political, and intellectual discontent became prevalent in the Philippines, Spain could not initiate the much-needed reforms because her impassive resistance to the developing economic and industrial progress of the other European countries harassed her. (Romero, Sta. Romana and Santos. 1978) Political System in 19th Century Philippines Spain in the 19th Century The 19th century was a chaotic period for Spain. Troubles began after the ascendancy into power in France of Napoleon Bonaparte, who planned to make France an empire and, in 1808, occupied Spain. Spontaneous demonstration of nationalism, the reactionary Spanish guerillas aided by the British Army defeated the French in serious bloody engagements. In 1814 driven the French from the Peninsula, and Ferdinand VII got back the theme of Spain. His rule was marked by chaos and the failure of reforms. Some Spaniards, the intelligencia as their guidelines, had accepted the celebrated motto of the French revolution, “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” Political System Ministro de Ultramar (Ministry of Colonies) Spain governed the Philippines. It helped the Spanish monarch manage the colonies’ affairs and governed the Philippines through a centralized government in Manila exercising executive, legislative, judicial, and religious powers. Governor General The Spanish King appointed him to head the central administration. He was the king’s representative in governmental matters. He also acted as Vice-Royal Patron over religious matters, giving him the prerogative to nominate priests to ecclesiastical positions and control the mission’s finances. As head of the state and the church, he exercised extensive powers. He also issued executive and legislative power with his cumplase the right of Gov. Gen. not to implement the laws/decrees applicable to the colony. As ex-officio president of Royal Audiencia up to 1861, he enjoyed judicial powers and was assisted by Lieutenant Governor (Gen. Segundo Cabo) Next to the central government hierarchical structure was the provincial government called alcaldias led by alcaldes mayores (civil governors) and the city government called cabildo or ayuntamiento administered by 2 alcaldes en ordinario (mayor and vice mayor) who were both chief executives and a chief judicial magistrate. Pueblo (town) is composed of barangays, the local government unit Gobernadorcillo (later called Capitan) is the pueblo’s chief executive and chief judge. The highest position in the government to which the native could be appointed. Elected at the beginning of every year by a board composed of members of the town principalia, a body of citizens of high standing in the town, made up of the incumbent ex-Cabeza de Barangay. Barangay or Barrio is the smallest unit of government Headed by the cabeza de barangay (Pilipino and Chinese mestizos). The main responsibility was to collect taxes and tributes from families, and he received 2% of the tax proceeds and 4% Sanctorum. To ensure that the revenues will be delivered, the law prescribed that the Cabezas properties were deemed mortgaged to the state at the beginning of his term. The term of office was 3 years. Guardia Civil They were organized in the Philippines in 1867. Corps of the provincial police with native ranks. Armed with rifles and officered by Spaniards. Cuadrilleros The Corps of Pueblo. Manning the various checkpoints set up in and around the pueblo. They served as night sentries in town or watchmen of the casa tribunal. And they were accompanying the gobernadorcillo or other deputies in their inspection rounds. Royal Audiencia The system of courts was centralized, and it was a pyramidal organization headed by the Royal Audiencia – the highest judicial body. Served as a high council and acted as auditor of government finances. The Governor General and Royal Audiencia made laws for the country called Autos Accordados. Legislative No regular body that took charge of enacting laws. Laws originating from various sources (ex. Royal decrees issued by the Spanish monarch and laws of the Indies) were applied to the Philippines. Some laws enacted for Spain were also applied to the Philippines. Among these were  Las Siete Partides  Las Leyes de Toro  Codigo Penal  Codigo Civil, and  Codigo de Commercio. Another group of laws was made up of royal decrees issued by the Spanish rulers at various times only for the Philippines. Sources of Weaknesses and Abuses in Administrative System  The appointment of officials with inferior qualification  Without dedication to duty  Lack of moral strength to resist corruption for material advancement  Vast powers and privileges given to the governor-general made him weak and biased  The Governor General’s supervisory and disciplinary prerogatives often allowed him to reward his favorites and relatives and penalize those who had displeased him.  Officials were assigned manifold duties and given many powers and privileges.  Functions of the central administrative officials overlapped, which resulted in confusion and friction.  Principal officials of the administrative system obtained their positions by royal appointment.  Rest of the positions were either filled by the Gov. Gen. Or were sold to the highest bidder.  Many officials exploited their offices to recover their expenses and to enrich themselves  Royal appointees’ term of office depended on the king’s whims.  Distance of the colony from Spain, inadequate administrative supervision, and overlapping of powers and privileges contributed to the perpetuation of anomalies in government service  Provincial administrative system was the most corrupt branch of government   The alcalde mayor was an administrator, judge, and military commander, with many privileges  Alcalde Mayor controlled the provincial trade through his privilege of indulto para commericar, wherein he bought all the people’s rice and other products, paid lower prices, and sold them back to the native at higher prices.  Alcalde’s privilege was collecting a certain percentage from the total amount of taxes levied on the province.  Unscrupulous officials exacted more tributes than required by law and pocketed the excess collections.  Natural and constitutional rights and liberties of the indios were curtailed.  Judicial system was not properly implemented  Many judges were incompetent and corrupt  Many cases were settled not according to the case’s merit but based on such considerations as race, money, and certain personal advantages.  Legal proceedings were costly; only those with personal and financial backing could afford trials and litigations.  Justices depended on the whims of one official  The principle of union of church and state in the Spanish rule in the Philippines spawned an invisible government called frailocracia (rule of friars)  Archbishop of Manila and other church officials shared extensive powers with the civil authorities.  Term of office of the officials was limited.  Religious corporations acquired vast tracts of lands of the natives to enrich their coffers  Friars often played politics to suit their purpose  Friars were found in the pueblo during the curacy; they became the ruler in the pueblo  Friars- supervisor of local elections  Administrator of Schools  Chairman of the Board of Taxation, of Health, of Charity  Responsible through the parish registrar for census taking for certifying the personal identification card The Bigotry of Spanish Institutions Spain introduced into the country mechanisms or institutions to enable the colonial government in the country to comply with its obligations of supporting the Church’s mission of Christianizing the natives and to contribute to the Spanish King’s economic welfare. These institutions include the encomienda, the polo or forced labor, and the tributo or tribute. The tribute consisted of: direct (personal tribute and income tax) and indirect (customs duties and the bandala), taxes, monopolies (rentas estancadas) of special crops and items such as spirituous liquors (1712- 1864), betel nut (1764), tobacco (1782-1882), explosives (1805-1864), and opium (1847) (Agoncillo, 1990). These colonial systems also became the major sources of discontent for many Indios during the Spanish period. Because of the oppressive nature of these systems, many revolts and uprisings erupted in various parts of the country, which contributed to the weakening of Spanish rule in the 19th century. The Tribute or Tributo As a sign of vassalage to Spain, the Filipinos paid tribute to the colonial government on the island (Zaide, 1999). On July 26, 1523, King Charles V decreed that Indians who had been pacified should contribute a “moderate amount” to recognize their vassalage (Cushner, 1979). In theory, the tribute or tax was collected from the natives to defray colonization costs and to recognize their vassalage to the king of Spain (Ibid). From the point of view of the Catholic Church, tribute could be extracted from the natives only if used primarily for the work of Christianization like the building of churches in the colony, support for missionaries, and so on. But from the point of view of the natives, the payment of the tribute was, however, seen as a symbol of acceptance of their vassalage to Spain. The Encomienda Another colonial system that is intimately connected with the tribute is the encomienda system. The word encomienda comes from the Spanish encomendar, which means “to entrust.” The ecomienda is a grant of inhabitants living in the particular conquered territory that Spain gave to Spanish colonizers as a reward for their services (Zaide, 1987). The king of Spain gave it as a gesture of gratitude to those who assisted him in colonizing the Indies. In the strict sense, it is not a land grant but a grant to exercise control over a specific place, including its inhabitants. It includes the right for the encomendero (owner of encomienda) to impose tribute or taxes according to the limit and kind set by higher authorities (Agoncillo, 1990). In exchange for this right, the encomendero is duty-bound by law to:  Defend his encomienda from external incursions.  To keep peace and order.  To assist the missionaries in evangelizing the natives within his territory. The encomiendas during the Spanish period were of two kinds-the royal and the private. The royal encomiendas, which consisted of big cities, seaports, and inhabitants of regions rich in natural resources, were owned by the king. The private encomiendas were owned by private individuals or charitable institutions such as the College of Santa Potenciana and the Hospital of San Juan de Dios (Zaide, 1987). By 1591, a total of 257 encomiendas with a total population of over 600,000 were created by the Spanish king in the Philippines (31 royal and 236 private). The encomienda system lasted a little longer and finally ended in the first decade of the 19th century (Zaide, 1987). Like the tribute, the encomienda system is one of the major sources of discontent of the natives against the Spanish rule. This system has empowered the Spanish encomiendero to collect tribute or taxes according to his whim or desire. Because there was no systematic taxation system in the colony, the encomiendero has the option to collect the tribute in gold, cash, or kind. When gold was abundant, and money was scarce, he demanded cash or reales; when reales were plentiful, and gold was scarce, they asked for gold, even when the poor Filipinos were coerced to buy them. During bumper harvests, he demanded products like rice, tobacco, or even all of the Filipino possessions, and they were forced “to travel great distances” to try to buy them at high rates. The encomiendero has indeed become abusive because of his discretionary power to collect taxes within his jurisdiction. Filipinos who resisted his power were publicly flogged, tortured, or jailed. These unjust collections of taxes within the encomienda system became one of the causes of intermittent uprisings in the Philippines during the Spanish period (Agoncillo, 1990). The Polo or Forced Labor There were already tensions between the Spanish and the Indios due to the tribute system, and the Polo system of forced labor only worsened things. The word “polo” is a corruption of the Tagalog pulong, originally meaning “meeting of persons and things” or “community labor.” Drafted laborers were Filipino or Chinese male mestizos who were obligated to give personal service to community projects, like construction and repair of infrastructure, church construction, or cutting logs in forests, for forty days. All able-body males, from 16 to 60 years of old, except chieftains and their elder sons, were required to render labor for these various projects in the colony. It was instituted in 1580 and reduced to 15 days per year in 1884 (Constantino, 1975). Some laws regulated polo. For instance, the polista (the person who renders forced labor) will be paid a daily wage of 14 real plus rice. Moreover, the polista was not supposed to be brought from a distant place nor required to work during planting and harvesting seasons. Despite restrictions, polo resulted in disastrous consequences. It resulted in the ruining of communities the men left behind. The promised wage was not given exactly as promised, which led to starvation or even death to some polistas and their families. Moreover, the polo had affected the village economy negatively. The labor drafts coincided with the planting and harvesting seasons; forced separation from the family and relocation to different places, sometimes outside the Philippines; and reduction of the male population as they were compelled at times to escape to the mountains instead of working in the labor pool (Agoncillo, 1990). King Ferdinand VII violently opposed the liberal reforms granted by the French provincial government. He disobeyed the constitution, and the Cortes put up by the Spanish Liberals in 1812 allowed the Philippines to send her representatives to the lawmaking body, King Ferdinand VII died in 1833, and her uncle, Don Carlos, contested the succession of his daughter, Isabella II. Don Carlos provoked the civil wars from 1833 to 1839. The struggle continued between the Liberal Party, called carlistas headed by Don Carlos, who were constitutionalists, and the Conservative Party, who wanted the retention of the monarchy. The increasing dissemination of liberal ideas and Queen Isabella’s tendency towards absolutism made her extremely unpopular. The 35-year reign by the Queen marked five by successive military politicians: Baldomero Espartero – moderate Ramon Ma. Narvaez – cruel and vindictive reactionary Leopoldo O’Donnell – moderate and reactionary tendencies Francisco Serrano – liberal Juan Prim – liberal Revolution in 1868 forced the Queen to leave the country, and the leaders offered the crown to Amadeo of Savoy. However, he could not reconcile the two opposing camps, was forced to abdicate after 2 years and ushered in the birth of the Spanish Republic. Republic ended with another Carlist war, the monarchy was restored in 1873, and Isabella’s son, Alfonso XII was made king in 1875. Famous conservative minister Canovas del Castillo strengthened the monarchy and overthrew the Carlist movement. New Cortes convoked with a new constitution in 1876 that embodied some democratic features, only in theory. The sovereignty of the people was a mockery. King Alfonso XII died in 1885, leaving behind an infant heir to the throne that created a grave situation in Spain. Canovas del Castillo was the real power behind the throne and, to perpetuate himself in power, agreed with Praxedes Mateo Sagasta, chief of the liberal party, to cooperate and maintain national unity. The plan was for the 2 to alternate in the administration or premiership (a rotation system based on manipulated election) of the nation’s affairs. The arrangement known as rotativism was designed primarily to save Spain from the harmful effects of bitter political rivalries and conflicts. During this period of political setbacks, the country’s economy suffered greatly. The constant change of power resulted in confusion and insecurity, thus preventing the rapid growth of commerce and industry (Romero, Sta. Romana, and Santos, 1978) After the war of independence (1804-1814), a slow economic recovery began. The Philippines were adversely affected by the political instability of Spain. Sweeping changes invariably followed change of administration in the mother country in the personnel of the Philippine government. The Philippines became a convenient dumping ground for followers and favorites of politicians in Spain. The rotation system though full of corruption, bought peace to Spain till the end of the 19th century. The Democratic Rule of Gov. Gen. Dela Torre The first-hand experience of what it is to be liberal came from the role modeling of the first liberal governor-general in the Philippines Governor General Carlos Ma. Dela Torre. Why Governor Dela Torre was able to rule in the Philippines has a long story. The political instability in Spain had caused frequent changes in Spanish officials in the Philippines, which caused further confusion and increased social and political discontent in the country. But when the liberals deposed Queen Isabela II in 1868 mutiny, a provisional government was set up, and the new government extended to the colonies the reforms they adopted in Spain. These reforms include the grant of universal suffrage and recognition of freedom and conscience, the press, association, and public assembly. General Carlos Ma. The provisional government appointed de la Torre in Spain as Governor General of the Philippines (Romero et al., 1978). The rule of the first liberal governor-general in the person of General de la Torre became significant in the birth of national consciousness in the 19th century. De la Torre’s liberal and pro-people governance had given Rizal and the Filipinos a foretaste of a democratic rule and way of life during this period. De la Torre put his liberal and democratic forms into practice by avoiding luxury and living a simple life. During his two-year term, Governor De la Torre had many significant achievements. He encouraged freedom and abolished censorship (Maguigad & Muhi, 2001). He recognized the freedom of speech and of the press, which the Spanish Constitution guaranteed. Because of his tolerant policy, Father Jose Burgos and other Filipino priests were encouraged to pursue their dream of replacing the friars with the Filipino clergy as parish priests in the country (Zaide, 1999). Governor De la Torre’s greatest achievement was the peaceful solution to the land problem in Cavite. This province has been the center of agrarian unrest in the country since the 18th century because Spanish landlords had oppressed the Filipino tenants who lost their land. Agrarian uprisings led by the local hero, Eduardo Camerino, erupted several times in Cavite. This agrarian problem was only solved without bloodshed when Governor De la Torre himself went to Cavite and had a conference with the rebel leader. He pardoned the latter and his followers, provided them with decent livelihood, and appointed them as members of the police force with Camerino as captain. Bourbon Reforms The Bourbon Reforms, also called Reformas Borbónicas in Castilian, was a set of economic and political changes made by the Spanish Crown under the House of Bourbon in the 18th century. Under the Hapsburg monarchs, the Spanish Empire had grown large and complicated, with many different organs acting confusingly. One of the main ideas behind the Bourdon reforms was that the monarchy and the state were more important than the Catholic Church. This led to an attempt to get rid of ecclesiastical privilege, which led to the Society of Jesus being banned in 1767. Overall the Bourbon Reforms resulted in a major restructuring of the administrative and political organization of the Spanish Empire and were intended to promote economic and commercial development. During this time, the reforms were necessary to help modernize technology and manufacturing in Spain and were also designed to help establish Spanish supremacy over the growing power of the Creoles, who were the local elites in the New World. The Bourbon Reforms were not very effective in the long run and ended up ostracizing many of the Creole elites. While the political reforms simplified the empire, it was a little too late as the writing was already on the wall for the collapse of the Spanish Empire. Starting by the end of the 17th century, when the Spanish Empire was already facing decline, the silver output from the New World was growing smaller every year, and there was a weak king named Charles II in power who left no heir. Even before he died in 1700, many other European noble houses wanted to place a successor on the throne and claim the vast holdings of the Spanish Empire as their own. Louis XIV of the French Empire received the Pope’s consent for his grandson Philip of Anjou, a great-nephew of Charles, to assume the throne. However, when Charles II died and the throne succeeded to a French-born heir, a new conflict flared up called the War of the Spanish Succession, which saw a major rise in piracy around the globe for the last time. Following the war, Spain was forced to surrender some of its European territories and grant the Asiento that allowed the British Empire to control the sale of slaves to the Spanish colonies in the New World. The new king of Spain, known as Philip V of Spain and the first king of the House of Bourbon, wanted to take steps to reverse the waning decline of Spanish power around the globe. Upon the death of Charles II, the situation seemed dire. There was only one division of the military, the treasury was bankrupt, and there was no state promotion of commerce or industry. The new kings turned to their French kinsmen and advisors to revitalize the Spanish Empire. Rizal’s Life: Family, Childhood and Early Education Rizal’s Ancestors Like most Filipinos, Rizal was of mixed racial origin. On his father’s side, he descended from a dynamic and intelligent Chinese merchant, Domingo Lamco, who married a Chinese mestiza, Ines de la Rosa. From the Parian, the family migrated to Biñan and became tenants in the Dominican estate. Lamco’s only son, Francisco, who was to be Rizal’s great grandfather, was a keen-witted and liberal young man. He became quite well-to-do and popular enough to be appointed municipal captain of Biñan in 1783. The family adopted the surname “Mercado” to free the younger generation from the prejudices that followed those with a Chinese name. The Mercado Family Francisco Mercado and his wife, Bernarda Monicha, a Chinese mestiza, were blessed with two children: Juan and Clemente. Juan married Cirila Alejandra, also a Chinese mestiza. The couple had 14 children, one of whom was Francisco, Rizal’s father. Francisco Mercado and two of his sisters moved to Calamba. Starting as a pioneer tenant farmer at the Dominican estate, he was promoted to overseer with compensation and was soon sub-leasing his additional allotments. His wife, Teodora Alonso, had a dry goods store. These earnings builts the fortunes of the Rizal family. The family of Teodora Alonso Realonda was more progressive than the family of her husband. In those days when professionals were scarce, the Alonso clan could be proud of several lawyers, priests, engineers, and government officials; Rizal’s maternal great grandfather, Manuel de Quintos, a Chinese mestizo from Lingayen, Pangasinan, was a lawyer. His wife, Regina Ursua (Ochoa), was of Japanese ancestry. Their daughter Brigida married Lorenzo Alberto Alonso, an engineer. His mother belonged to a professionally prominent family from Baliwag, Bulacan. Lorenzo himself was wealthy and had a considerable investment in two American companies. His wife Brigida was well educated and a good mathematician. The couple had five children, including Teodora, who was to become Rizal’s mother. From Rizal’s account of boyhood, one gathers that he was brought up in circumstances that even in the Philippines of our day would be considered privileged. On both his father’s and his mother’s sides, his forbears had been people of substance and influence well above the average of their times. Dona Teodora’s family was perhaps the more distinguished. Rizal himself wrote his Austrian friend Blumentritt: “My mother is a woman of more than average education. Her father, Lorenzo Alberto Alonso, a deputy for the Philippines in the Cortes, was her teacher; her brother (the cuckolded Josel was educated in Europe and spoke German, English, Spanish and French; he was also a knight in the Order of Isabel the Catholic.” Dona Teodora’s maternal grandfather, Manuel de Quintos, had been a well-known lawyer in Manila. Both Don Lorenzo and his father Don Cipriano had been mayors of Bilan. When Sir John Bowring, the Governor of Hong Kong and His Majesty’s Plenipotentiary in China, went on a tour of Luzon, he stayed at Jose Alberto’s house. There, he saw “plenty of evidence that his host had not studied the arts of domestic civilization for nothing.” The furniture, the beds, the tables, and the crockery were all in good taste; Rizal’s family on his father’s side, the Mercados, had been originally merchants, as their surname, which in Spanish means market, suggested. But they had added a second surname under the circumstances described by Rizal himself. “I am the only Rizal because, at home, my parents, my sisters, my brother, and my relatives have always preferred our old surname, Mercado. Our family name was indeed Mercado, but there were many Mercados in the Philippines who were not related to us. It says that a provincial governor, who was a friend of the family, added Rizal to our name.” Whoever the provincial governor was, his choice was prophetic for Rizal in Spanish means a field where wheat, cut while still green, sprouts again. The Mercados also slowly changed how they made a living, moving toward farming and a small role in local politics, which was their duty and right as property owners. Juan Mercado, Francisco’s father, had been elected as mayor of Bilan 3 times. Rizal’s father, however, had moved to Calamba to cultivate lands leased from the Dominicans to such good effect that he became one of the town’s wealthiest men. He was the first to build a stone house and buy another in a town with only four or five houses of any size, keep a carriage, own a library, and send his children to school in Manila. Jose Protačio Mercado Rizal y Realonda Birthday: June 19, 1861 Birthplace: Calamba, Laguna Francisco Rizal Mercado (1818–1898) Father: Don Francisco Mercado Rizal y Alejandro An honest, dynamic, and thrifty man. Rizal described him as a “model of fathers.” He dedicated his life to agriculture in Biñan, Laguna, and later, he became a tenant of the Dominican estate in Calamba. He received a college degree from Colegio de San Jose in Manila. Mother: Teodora Alonzo Realonda Quintos A cultured and religious woman. She was a mother who provided an atmosphere of learning, culture, virtue, and warmth. She was a sacrificing, hardworking, disciplinarian woman, and she was a learned woman. She was Rizal’s first teacher. Sisters: Saturnina, Narcisa, Olimpia, Lucia, Maria, Concepcion, Josefa, Trinidad, Soledad Brother: Paciano was a full ten years older than Rizal. Like his father, he pursued a college education in Manila. The Rizal family of Calamba, Laguna, was typical of the middle-class families of the 19th century. Only theirs was with social status, their family being among the principalia. The comfortable life can be attributed to the devotion and hard work of Don Francisco and his wife, Teodora. Their large rectangular abode was made of stone, wood, and a red-tiled roof. They had an orchard, carriages, and horses and owned an agricultural business of rice and sugar. Education was a great emphasis in the Rizal home. José Rizal’s Baptismal Register Even as a young child of three, Rizal was able to master the alphabet. Rizal enrolled in school at Binan, Laguna, when he was nine years old. He developed a lifelong love of reading and writing because of the huge collection of books in his family home when he was a young lad. Rizal also loved to read books while his mother listened. In addition to reading, he also manifested skills in sculpture, sketching, and painting. The scenic beauty of Calamba and his admiration of his mother and other people provided themes for his literary talent and artistry. Recognizing her son’s creativity, Doña Teodora encouraged him to express his thoughts and sentiments in verse. He wrote his first poem, Sa Aking Mga Kabata (“To My Fellow Children”) when he was only eight years old. Rizal Siblings Saturnina Rizal (1850-1913) She was the eldest child of the Rizal-Alonzo marriage. She married Manuel Hidalgo of Tanauan, Batangas. Their children were Alfredo (1883-1952), who married Aurora Tiaoqui; Adela (1886-1946), who married Jose Ver; Abelardo; and Amelia and Augusto, who died young. In 1909 Doña Saturnina published Pascual Poblete’s Tagalog translation of the Noli Me Tangere. Paciano Rizal (1851-1930) Perhaps the closest sibling of Jose, Paciano, is known to have made a pact with Jose for him to go to Spain to voice to Spain what is truly happening in the Philippines under the rule of the Spaniards. Paciano also updated his brother Jose about what was happening in the country while Jose was in Europe. He was also the man in charge of sending Jose his money and budget when he was in Europe. Paciano was also quite the man who ignited Rizal’s fire and eagerness and awakened Rizal’s sense of nationhood when he exposed him to the trial of GomBurZa. Paciano also became an ally of the Katipunan, and he also became a general in the revolutionary army during the 1900s. Paciano studied Latin under Maestro Justiniano Cruz before attending the Colegio de San Jose in Manila. While in the city, he lived and worked with Fr. Jose A. Burgos, who earned the ire of the Spanish friars by campaigning for the secularization movement. Jose began to use the name Rizal instead of Mercado, which the rest of his family used, to avoid the surveillance the Spanish authorities were already giving Paciano because of his connections with Burgos. Narcisa (1852-1939) Married Antonino Lopez. She was a teacher and musician from Pueblo de Morong (former name of Rizal Province). Their children were Emilio, Angelica, who married Benito Abreu; Antonio (1878-1928), who married Emiliana Rizal (the daughter of Paciano Rizal); Consuelo; Leoncio, who married Natividad Arguelles; and Isabel, Francisco, Arsenio, and Fidela, all of whom died young. It is said that Doña Narcisa could recite from memory almost all the poems of Rizal. Olimpia (1855-1887) Married Silvestre Ubaldo, a telegraph operator from Manila. Their children were Aristeo, who married Leonarda Limjap; Cesario and another boy, both of whom died young. Lucia (1857-1919) Married Mariano Herbosa of Calamba, Laguna. Their children were Delfina, first wife of Gen. Salvador Natividad and who helped Marcela Agoncillo make the first Filipino flag in Hong Kong, Concepcion ,Patrocinio, who married Jose Battalones; Teodosio, who married Lucina Vitingco; Estanislao, and Paz, Victoria, and Jose, all of whom died young. Maria (1859-1945) Married Daniel Faustino Cruz of Biñan, Laguna. Their children were Encarnacion, who married Rosendo Banaad; Mauricio, who married Concepcion Arguelles; and Petrona, Paz, and Prudencio, who all died young. Concepcion (1862-1865) Sibling after Jose, died at the age of three when Rizal was four. Josefa (1865-1945) and Trinidad (1868-1951) Lived together until their deaths. Both became members of the Katipunan. Trinidad was the custodian of Rizal’s elegy, “Mi Ultimo Adios.” Soledad (1870-1929) Married Pantaleon Quintero of Calamba, Laguna. Their children were Trinitario, who married Maria San Mateo; Amelia, who married Bernabe Malvar (son of Gen. Miguel Malvar); Luisa, who married Jose Arguelles; and Serafin and Felix, both of whom died young. Soledad, who became a teacher, is said to have been “the best educated” among Rizal’s sisters. Jose was also close to his sisters; Pepe, as they call him, shared many stories, played games, and enjoyed his siblings’ company. Pepe also confided about his colorful love life as he told Olimpia about his first sweetheart while to Maria about Segunda Katigbak. Pepe also talked about marrying Josephine Bracken, but his family strongly disagreed but later supported him. His sisters also made ways how to support Pepe’s journey and studies in Europe by pawning some of their jewelry. They also visited Pepe when he was exiled in Dapitan. Right before his execution, Narcisa tried to recover Pepe’s body by bribing a gravedigger to help them locate their brother’s remains. Rizal’s Childhood The boy Jose was very happy there. He had been born on the 19th June 1861 “between eleven and midnight, a few days before the full moon.” It was a difficult delivery that endangered his mother’s life. He was the seventh of eleven children, the younger of two boys. Don Francisco and his wife were a prolific pair: they had Saturnina in 1850, Paciano in 1851, Narcisa in 1852, Olimpia in 1855, Lucia in 1857, Maria in 1859, Jose in 1861, Concepcion in 1862, Josefa in 1865, Trinidad in 1868, and Soledad in 1870. Paciano was thus a full ten years older than Jose, and more of a second father than an elder brother, especially when Don Francisco, to all effects and purposes, left the management of the family lands in his hands. When he was nine, his private tutor died, so he was taken by Paciano to Biñan one Sunday. He would lodge in an aunt’s house there and continue his studies in a private school. He was not to stay there very long; it would not be enjoyable. He did not like the town; it struck him as “large and rich, but ugly and dismal.” He also didn’t like his teacher, Justiniano Aquino Cruz, who was “a tall, thin man with a long neck, a sharp nose, and a body that slightly bowed forward.” He knew by heart the Spanish and Latin grammar of the medieval Nebrija and the more modern Dominican Gainza, but he thought that the best way to teach this was by slapping the buttocks of his students. As a boy, he also showed a tendency toward touchiness. He seemed unable to take a joke at his expense. He fought with the schoolmaster’s son because he was “making fun” of him. He never forgot that his classmates in Binan had laughed at him and called him names he didn’t like, and he took great pride in saying, “Some of them later became my classmates in Manila, and in fact, we were in situations that were completely different there.” He was offended whenever his aunt asked him to take a particularly delicious dish over to the house of one of her sons-“something I never did at home, and would never have done!” he exclaimed (Guerrerro, 1974). First Sorrow Love and friendship kept the Rizal children close to one another throughout their lives. They were well-behaved because their parents taught them to love one another, to conduct appropriately in the face of elders, to be truthful and pious, and to support one another. They were also well-mannered because they helped one another. They had a warm and endearing nickname for both of their parents: Tatay for their father and Nanay for their mother. The youngest of his sisters, Concha was the sibling Jose cherished the most (Concepcion). He was Concha’s older brother by one year. He interacted with her through play, and it was from her that he gained an appreciation for the delicacy of brotherly love. Concha sadly passed away in 1865, when she was three years old, due to an illness. Because he had such a soft spot in his heart for her, Jose wept uncontrollably when she passed away. “I lost my little sister Concha when I was four years old,” he continued, “and then for the first time, I sobbed tears of love and pain…” The loss of little Concha was the first time he experienced genuine grief. Early Education Rizal had his early education in Calamba and Biñan. It was a typical schooling that a son of an ilustrado family received during his time – one that is characterized by the four R’s – reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Instructions were rigid and strict, and knowledge was forced into the pupils’ minds by the tedious memory method aided by the teacher’s whip. Despite the defects of the Spanish system of elementary education, Rizal was able to acquire the necessary instructions preparatory for college work in Manila. It may say that Rizal, born a physical weakling, rose to become an intellectual giant not because of, but rather despite, the outmoded and backward system of instruction obtained in the Philippines during the last decades of the Spanish regime. Jose Rizal’s first teacher was his mother, who taught him how to read and pray and who had encouraged him to write poetry. As a tutor, Doña Teodora was patient, conscientious, and understanding. She first discovered that her son had a talent for poetry, and Accordingly, she encouraged him to write poems. She told him several stories to break up the monotony of learning the alphabet and to encourage his creativity. Later, private tutors taught the young Rizal Spanish and Latin before he was sent to a private school in Biñan. As Jose grew older, his parents employed private tutors to give him lessons at home. The first was Maestro Celestino and the second, Maestro Lucas Padua. Later, an older man named Leon Monroy, a former classmate of Rizal’s father, became the boy’s tutor. This old teacher lived at the Rizal home and instructed Jose in Spanish and Latin. Unfortunately, he did not live long and died five months later. After Monroy’s death, the hero’s parents decided to send their gifted son to a private school in Biñan. In academic studies, Jose beat all Biñan boys. He surpassed them all in Spanish, Latin, and other subjects. Some of his older classmates were jealous of his intellectual superiority. They wickedly squealed to the teacher whenever Jose fought the school and even told lies to discredit him before the teacher’s eyes. Consequently, the teacher had to punish Jose. Although the Spanish educational system in the Philippines at that time was neither so bad nor so good as it had made it out to be, there were only three secondary schools in Manila to which he could send a boy of Jose’s wit, means, and connections: the San Jose Seminary where Paciano had studied, the Dominican College of San Juan de Letran, and the city school run by the Jesuits, the Ateneo Municipal. Paciano’s experience in San Jose had not been happy, and perhaps he reminded Don Francisco of the execution earlier that year of Burgos and the two other seculars, generally attributed to their enemies, the friars. In any case, Paciano was instructed to enroll his younger brother in the Jesuit school. Education at Ateneo Municipal de Manila Although the Jesuits’ ability to administer parishes was limited outside of the more distant districts of Mindanao, they were granted the privilege of creating colleges and therefore had to apply to the City of Manila for subsidies when they were allowed to return to the Philippines. Thus, the college opened its doors to students in 1865 and took on the name Ateneo Municipal. For admission to the Ateneo, candidates were required to take an entrance exam that covered Christian philosophy, reading, writing, grammar, and basic arithmetic. Because of this, Jose did not take any of his entrance exams. Even though his father originally planned to send Jose to the De La Salle University, he ultimately decided to enroll him at the Ateneo de Manila University. Jose took the surname Rizal after the first, Mercado, had gotten him in trouble with the law because that was the name Paciano used when he lived and studied with Father Burgos. Paciano, who accompanied Jose, helped him locate housing in the Walled City. Still, the desolate atmosphere of Intramuros sent him away, and he eventually settled in the home of a spinster on Calle Carballo in the Santa Cruz neighborhood. In that residence, he met a number of mestizos who friars had fathered, and it seemed as though fate was preparing him with information for future campaigns. A Jesuit education was ahead of its time compared to other academic models of the time. Discipline was strict, and its tactics were less mechanical. It also included the development of artistic skills like drawing, painting, and music in its curriculum. As a religious institute, its primary goal was to shape the boys’ personalities and wills to better align with the church’s teachings; nonetheless, it also established vocational courses in agriculture, commerce, and mechanics. Classes were opened and closed with prayers, and students attended mass before each session. Students were assigned to either the Roman or Carthaginian Empire during the first two semesters, depending on whether they were an intern or an extern. The Emperor, Tribune, Decurion, Centurion, and Standard-Bearer were the five highest-ranking officials in each empire. Individual contests were held to determine who would receive these honors, and the winner would be the one who successfully caught their opponent making a mistake three times. The empires saw themselves as always at war with one another, and any time a citizen of one empire was caught in a lie by a citizen of the other, the latter received a point. Each empire’s points were totaled up at the end of every week or two, and the one with the most points was named the victor. The most devout and hardworking students in each class were invited to join the Mary and Saint Louis Gonzaga fraternity. Sundays after church, members of this fraternity, would get together to host public events such as poetry readings and debates. With so many opportunities for success, it’s no surprise that the students of the Ateneo are competitive with one another. Fr. Jose Bech was Jose’s first teacher, and he remembers him as a “tall, slim guy with a forward bend and a rapid pace; ascetic physiognomy, severe and inspired; small, sunken eyes; a sharp Grecian nose; thin lips forming an arch with its sides oriented toward his chin.” He had erratic mood swings and a sense of humor that ranged from hard and little tolerance to gay and fun as a child. Jose’s pupils ranged from Peninsulares and their offspring to the clever but not particularly studious Francisco G. Oliva, the talented but forgetful Joaquin Garrido, and the Emperor himself, Gonzalo Marzano. From the very beginning, Jose was able to systematize his job; he established a schedule for himself, detailing exactly how he would spend each of the day’s twenty-four hours. In this way, he learned to control his impulses and submit his will to his intellect. Jose, a new student, started at the very bottom of the class, but he quickly rose through the ranks, eventually becoming Emperor by the end of the month. He finished with an overall outstanding grade point average and perfect scores on all tests and assignments. When he returned to his hometown for the summer, he was so pleased by his success that he rushed to visit his mother in prison. It’s likely he let out that remark after hearing the news from his mom that they’d pulled a nasty prank on her. The judge, a former friars’ housekeeper and so a blind partisan of the order, promised to release her upon her confession of guilt immediately. So that she could be reunited with her kids, she pleaded guilty, but the judge nonetheless found her guilty. A few months later, the judge apologized to her for his actions, saying that they troubled his conscience, but there was nothing he could do because the case was already on appeal. In Jose’s second year, he had the same professor as in his first, but he lived at No. 6 Calle Magallanes in the city’s heart. After completing his sentence, he returned home with a medal and paid another solo visit to his mother in prison, and it would be another three months before she would be free. In his third year of school, he began to do well enough academically to earn prizes in the quarterly exams, thanks largely to the uplifted mood brought on by her release. About that time, he devoted himself to reading novels, and one of those he admired most was Dumas’ (father) The Count of Monte Cristo. The sorrows of the hero of the twelve years. He also requested a copy of The Universal History by Cesar Cantanu from his father and claims to have learned a great deal from it. The family, who noticed Jose’s tremendous ability to study, decided to place him as an intern or boarding student in the institution the following year. Jose spent two years as an intern in a dorm room, in a corner that looked out over the water and toward the pier. Fr. Francisco Sanchez was his professor in the final year of his program. He studied mathematics, rhetoric, and Greek, and he must have made significant progress since, at the end of the year, he- obtained five medals, which thrilled him enormously because with them, I could return my father partly for his sacrifices. A natural talent for poetry quickly emerged in him, and he never stopped honing it. An event occurred at this time that exemplifies Jose’s strong sense of autonomy. His father’s close friend, the town’s parish priest, Fr. Leoncio Lopez, also liked Jose. He has a refined mind but a soft heart. Eventually, Mother Jose presented Father Lopez with a poem written by her son’s friend, Jose, who had plagiarized it from a book. After hearing this, Jose responded angrily to the priest, and his mother later reprimanded him. Later, Father Lopez learned from the Jesuits that Jose was a gifted student who wrote poetry, and he traveled to Manila despite his advanced age to personally apologize to Jose. Father Lopez’s kind act endeared him to Jose, and the two rekindled their friendship by exchanging reading material. Fathers Vilaclara and Mineves were two of Jose’s fifth-year teachers. He also dabbled in physics, chemistry, and natural history, but his true passion was poetry. When his philosophy professor suggested he give it up, he broke down in tears. But during his downtime, he kept working with his old professor, Father Sanchez, to cultivate the Muses. By the end of the semester, the students had played out a dialogue that Jose had written that referenced the students’ final farewell to college. But philosophy, right and fair, looking into the wherefores of things, captivated him as much as poetry; physics, lifting the veil that divine play of nature was enacted; natural history, although he enjoyed the shells and sometimes imagined seeing a goddess in each shell, he was on the shelf. Jose was short for his age, so he committed himself to collegiate gymnastics to increase his height. He did fencing and other physical activities. Following his baccalaureate, he gave an exhibition duel against the town’s best swordsman, impressing his family with his prowess with the blade. The arts of painting and sculpture also received his attention. Peninsula Don Augustin Saez, an art professor at the Ateneo, mentored him in his artistic pursuits and showed him great respect for the progress he had made under his tutelage. His sculpture teacher, a Filipino named Romualdo de Jesus, was elated to have such a talented student in the years leading up to his death. The University of Sto. Tomas Fortunately, Rizal’s terrible first passion and bitter disillusionment had no negative impact on his academic performance at the University of Santo Tomas. His passion for higher study proved stronger than his affection for a beautiful woman. In April of 1877, at nearly sixteen years old, Rizal enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas to study Philosophy and Letters. These factors influenced his decision to take this class: For one, it was approved by his dad, and two, he was “Uncertain as to what job to follow.” He decided to reach out to Father Pablo Ramon, the Rector of Ateneo, who had helped him a lot during his time as a student there, for guidance on his future professional endeavors. Unfortunately, Father Rector was in Mindanao, and back then, it took a letter many months to get from Manila to Mindanao. So, he took classes in Philosophy, Cosmology, Metaphysics, and Theodicy during his first year (1877–1879) at UST. During the following academic year (1878-179), Rizal decided to pursue a career in medicine, enrolling in both the pre-medical course and the normal first-year medical program. Two factors influenced his decision to become a doctor: (1) he wished to help his mother’s declining eyesight, and (2) Father Pablo Ramon, the Rector of Ateneo, whom he had written to for advice on a career path, recommended medicine. All the Girls Jose Rizal Loved Before The things that the Filipino hero Jose Rizal did and won in his 35-year life could only have been done with true passion. He would do anything to show how much he loved not only his country but also his women. His trips around the Philippines and the rest of the world led to many different relationships that shaped almost half his life. On record, there are nine women. It doesn’t mean that all those relationships were serious, but at least he pursued when he wanted to, cared, and showed his care and charm without apologizing. He also wrote down what was going on in his life, using his much-praised eloquent prose. And based on those papers, let’s say the man is a high-level bolero. He also sent them letters (a dying art, so forgive us waxing poetic about it). And don’t forget that he almost had a duel with Antonio Luna, a general in the Filipino army, when Luna was drunk and said bad things about a girl named Nellie Boustead. He was grand when he needed to be and smooth without trying. You could call him an expert playboy or lover. But even though he flirted a lot, he was a big believer that women should have a lot of power. It was evident in his essay “To the Young Women of Malolos,” which he wrote for the 20 women in Bulacan who fought for a night school so they could learn Spanish. He wrote, “The Filipina no longer stands with her head bowed or spends her time on her knees because she has hope for the future. The mother will no longer help keep her daughter in the dark and raise her in disgrace and moral ruin.” And the science of all sciences will no longer be blind obedience to an unjust order or extreme complacency. A friendly smile will no longer be seen as the only way to deal with an insult, nor will humble tears be seen as the cure-all for all problems. Who has that kind of swagger to be a supporter of women’s rights? It’s not hard to think someone would flirt back after he writes his first line. Here are the stories of nine of Dr. Jose Rizal’s women as proof of his “ways.” Segunda Katigbak It’s said that true love lasts forever; however, that saying doesn’t apply if your “first love” is already married, and you must then quickly release it. Like the time 16-year-old, Jose Rizal encountered Segunda Katigbak, a Batanguea, and fell in love with her. When the young hero and his friend Mariano Katigbak, Segunda’s brother, went to visit the hero’s grandmother, that’s when they first met. Rizal’s grandmother was close to the Katigbaks, and Segunda happened to be visiting her when Rizal and Mariano showed up there. It was instant chemistry. Segunda also had a close relationship with Rizal’s sister Olympia, whom he would frequently visit at La Concordia University. They started hanging out all the time and eventually became best friends. Unfortunately for Rizal, Segunda had already committed to marrying a guy from her hometown, so he had to abandon his pursuit of her. Rizal recorded his recollection of the event years later: “Ended, at an early house, my first love! My naive, young heart will always regret taking that first, terrifying step off the edge of the flower- covered cliff. My delusions will come back, but this time they will be numb, hesitant, and open to the possibility of the first betrayal along the road to love. Leonor Valenzuela Leonor “Orang” Valenzuela is the girl-next-door, and she is Rizal’s second love interest. At Doa Concha Leyva’s boarding house in Intramuros, Manila, they first met while Rizal was a sophomore medical student at the University of Santo Tomas. The 14-year-old Orang who lived next to him at the time was his neighbor. Rizal was also a skilled chemist; thus, he may have written his love letters to Leonor in invisible ink made from water and salt during their courtship. Orang had to heat the letters over a candle or lamp to read them. How did we go from this elaborate and time-consuming method of courtship to clicking the “love” button on Instagram? (I’m curious.) The Valenzuelas’ house was a popular gathering spot for local college students, and Rizal often spent time there. Documents exist, however, which may be used to demonstrate that Rizal’s efforts were fruitless. Some stories have it that he was secretly trying to woo both Leonor Valenzuela and his second cousin Leonor Rivera simultaneously, hence the need for the invisible letters. (However, we must acknowledge the labor involved.) According to reports, Rivera was aware of this and allowed himself to be swayed by Rizal’s charms. It is believed that before Rizal went to Spain in 1882, he bid farewell to his close friend and colleague, Jose “Chenggoy” Cecilio, and their mutual acquaintance, Orang. Chenggoy, the ultimate teaser (and maybe wingman? ), found the “rivalry” between the namesakes to be hilarious. One of Chenggoy’s letters to Rizal reads, “…nagpipilit ang munting kasera (Leonor Rivera) na makita si Orang, pero dahil natatakpan ng isang kin puti, hindi naming nakilala nang dumaan ang prusisyon sa tapat ng bahay. Someone told me to tell you guys in no uncertain terms that they are not on board with your plans to improve your lives, and I have it on good authority that this is exactly what they said. What a surprise, Tukayo! What a treasure we have found in these pages! A review of the literature (Manebog, 2013) In case you forgot, Rizal was in Europe studying medicine at Universidad Central de Madrid and art at Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Calle Alcala while simultaneously chasing after the two Leonors. Perhaps he had some spare time on his hands. Leonor Rivera Leonor was 13 when she first encountered Rizal, 18 at the time, in his uncle’s boarding house in Intramuros, Manila. Specifically, Rizal’s second cousin twice removed was named Leonor. She was a lovely student with an outstanding piano player and singing voice, and he was a brilliant charmer. They started dating and soon realized they were in love with each other. However, as with many sad love stories, they were hampered by several factors. Leonor’s parents were extremely against the couple getting together because they feared Rizal was a “filibuster.” Rizal referred to Leonor as “Taimis” to protect her privacy in his letters. Rizal declared that he had found the woman he would marry just before he left for Europe in 1882. Paciano Rizal, the author’s brother, said it wouldn’t be fair to Leonor if he abandoned her after they were married. But as all youthful loves do, theirs fought against the odds. Although they did not tie the knot, they did try to keep the romance alive by writing each other letters; unfortunately, Leonor’s mother would often intercept and hide their letters. In a letter to Rizal from 1890, Leonor announced her engagement to British engineer Henry Kipping. The wedding did take place that year. It was stated that Leonor saved the ashes of the letters she had burned after her mother forced her to destroy them. Legend has it that she tucked some of the ashes into the lining of her bridal dress. They continued their shady romance, nonetheless. Sadly, Leonor lost her life giving birth to her second child in 1893. From what we can gather, Rizal went silent for a few days after hearing the news from his sister Narcisa. People think Rizal used Leonor as inspiration for Maria Clara in Noli Me Tangere. It’s gloomy in a Shakespearean sense, and there’s no greater intensity to a love tale than one that loses out to fate. Consuelo Ortega Y Rey Don Pablo Ortiga Y Rey, Mayor of Manila under Maria dela Torre, had a daughter named Consuelo Ortega Y Rey. Don Pablo’s house became a gathering point for Filipino students in Madrid while Rizal was there. One of these events is where Rizal and Consuelo first met. Though he expressed feelings for Consuelo, he was still engaged to Leonor Rivera at the time, so their relationship was never more than platonic. Although he enjoyed the company of ladies, he experienced loneliness and a need to fill the vacuum that Leonor had left in his life during that little time. Although the relationship never developed into anything more than a casual fling, Rizal dedicated a sonnet to her called “A La Seorita C.O.y.P.” Of course, writing a sonnet for someone is the modern equivalent of popping the question. Rizal’s buddy Eduardo de Lete proposed to Consuelo, and the two are now engaged. According to legend, Rizal abandoned the mestiza idea because of Eduardo’s undying devotion to Consuelo. Alternatively, their relationship may have been a classic example of a rebound fling in today’s terminology. Seiko Usui In numerous entries, Rizal gushed about Japan’s pristine aesthetic, tranquil culture, and orderly society. But if there was one thing that almost kept him in the land of the most beautiful cherry blossoms, it was a woman named Seiko Usui, who he fondly referred to as O-Sei-San. Period: 1888. With an offer of employment at the Spanish Legation in Tokyo, Rizal had recently traveled to Japan from Hong Kong. He was captivated by O-Sei-beauty San’s the first time he laid eyes on her when he saw her pass through the legation’s gate. A Japanese gardener was able to help him meet the woman he had been admiring when he asked to be introduced to her. It was the gardener’s job to translate for Rizal because he spoke so little Japanese at the time. Within minutes of talking, however, they realized that O-Sei-San spoke English and French, which was a huge relief given that Rizal was fluent in both languages. Once they were able to communicate with one another, a romance blossomed. Time passed, and O-Sei-San instructed Rizal in the ways of Japan. They went on a sightseeing tour, checking out landmarks like universities and art galleries. They discussed literature, music, and theater in a fluid exchange of French, English, and whatever else struck their fancy. Their affection was innocent and free-spirited. In many accounts, Rizal was prepared to uproot his life, migrate to Japan, and settle down with his beloved O-Sei-San. Sadly for their potential future together, he had to depart Japan for San Francisco to fulfill his patriotic obligations. He lost track of O-Sei-San and never saw him again. The couple had an affair that lasted for around two months. It’s less than the length of a typical season of a Netflix show, but you know Rizal, so you know it’s intense. Gertrude Beckett Rizal, then 27 years old, met Gertrude Beckett, the eldest daughter of his landlord, in London the same year he began and ended his relationship with O-Sei-San. Gertrude doted on Rizal as a star- crossed lover might. She even helped Rizal complete some of his well-known sculptures, including “Prometheus Bound,” “The Triumph of Death over Life,” and “The Triumph of Science over Death.” The two had pet names for each other; he was Pettie, and she was Gettie. Despite this, it is clear from the evidence presented that both parties did not share the sentiments. When Rizal departed London in 1889, he gave Gettie a sculpture that he had made of the skulls of the Beckett sisters. According to Rizal’s friend Marcelo del Pilar, Rizal left London to escape Gertrude. The romanticized of the latter view of their connection with Rizal was the most torturous kind: an unrequited love. Suzanne Jacoby Perhaps the thought of having nothing better to do with his time turned Rizal off. Even with the stress of his country and his family, he was able to use his downtime to educate himself on topics like flirting with ladies. After landing in Belgium in 1890, he slept at a boarding house owned by two sisters with the surname Jacoby. It so happened that the sisters’ niece’s name was Suzanne. What happens next with Rizal and his caretaker’s family is certainly something you can guess. If not a neighbor, then a relative of the one caring for the pet. Is there a pattern developing? The guy has no time to travel more than a kilometer away. In addition, Rizal’s silence on the subject of Suzanne in his letters to friends suggests that the relationship was brief. In August that year, Rizal fled the country, and the loss devastated Suzanne. Meanwhile, Rizal continued working on El Filibusteri