Cross-Cultural Psychology PDF

Introduction Today’s ever-diversifying world, we are faced with misunderstandings, confusion, and conflict, much of which we see every day. There are some universal aspects to all human beings—we are alike in certain ways. But we are also m...

Introduction Today’s ever-diversifying world, we are faced with misunderstandings, confusion, and conflict, much of which we see every day. There are some universal aspects to all human beings—we are alike in certain ways. But we are also members of important cultural groups, making us similar to others in our groups. And we are like no one else, each individual unique and different. Cross-cultural psychology uncovers similarities as well as differences in people’s mental processes and behavior. Cross-cultural research and psychology asks: Is what we know about human behavior true across cultures? Cross-cultural psychology enable us to intervene in people’s lives more effectively  Goals of Cross-cultural psychology Cross-cultural psychology – Examines the cultural foundations of psychological processes and human behavior across cultures Goals of psychology – To build a body of knowledge about people – To apply that body of knowledge to improve people’s lives Psychological research has been based on WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic cultures) – Not representative of all humans Cross-cultural research: Tests the cultural parameters of psychological knowledge – Involves research on human behavior that compares psychological processes between two or more cultures  Importance of Cross-Cultural Psychology Health-care workers, first responders, therapists and counsellors, businesspeople—just about everyone—will live, work, or interact with people from differing cultural backgrounds and in diverse environments. On psychological knowledge – Understands human behaviors within a global perspective – Tests people’s limited knowledge by examining whether theories and principles are culture-specific or universal On our own lives – Encourages one to ask questions from a cultural perspective Is the knowledge true for all people regardless of their cultural backgrounds? Under what conditions do differences occur, and why?  Growth of Cross-Cultural Research and Psychology Cultural psychology has popularized psychology worldwide – Highlights the importance of culture on behavior – Increases awareness about intercultural conflicts Theoretical models and books are incorporating culture https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IesWWZEh604 Increased interest in cultural psychology is a normal and healthy development  Culture 1. Refers to general characteristics of a society 2. Refers to heritage or tradition 3. Describes rules and norms 4. Describes learning or problem solving 5. Defines the organization of a group 6. Refers to origins of a group  Culture Defined We define human culture as unique meaning and information systems, shared within groups and transmitted across generations, which allow groups to meet survival needs, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life. Function – Provides guidelines or roadmaps on what to do, how to think, and what to feel – Ways of living use universal psychological toolkits to meet basic human needs Definition – Unique information system shared by a group, and transmitted across generations – Allows the group to meet basic needs, pursue well-being, and derive meaning from life Table 1.1 - Factors that Influence the Creation of Cultures Group Life Environments The Evolved Human Mind  Division of Labor  Climate  Basic Human Needs and Motives  Efficiency  Resources  Universal Psychological Toolkit  Increase Survival  Arable Land Probability  Money  Population Density  Diseases  Previous Cultures  Contact with Other Cultures  Environment - Climate In psychological terms, more demanding cold or hot climates arouse a chain of needs shared by all inhabitants of an area climates require special clothing, housing, and working arrangements; and special organizations for production, transportation, trade, storage, and special care and cure facilities for food. Groups in hotter climates tend to organize their daily activities more around shelter, shade, and temperature changes that occur throughout the day People who live nearer the poles organize their lives around available sunlight.  Resources Resources foster certain psycho-logical characteristics and attributes that complement teamwork, community spirit, and interdependence. People and groups with more money can afford to be less in sync with others because cooperation is not as essential for survival. People and groups with less money, however, need to cooperate in order to survive.  Population density Crowded places will influence how people live and behave, which will be different than living in an area with very few people. Some value the idea of hospitality and helping one’s family and neighbors. Figure 1.6 - A Functional Understanding of Culture Humans generally want the companionship of others - social conflicts and chaos increase because people are different. Human group requires social coordination; if people are coordinated, they are efficient in doing their part for their group to survive Human cultures create and maintain complex social systems, institutionalizing and improving cultural practices, creating beliefs about the world, and communicating meaning systems to other humans and subsequent generations.  Table 1.2 - Universal Psychological Functioning “Toolkit” Needs and Motives Complex Cognitive Emotions Personality Traits Abilities  Physical Needs  Shared Intentionality  Basic Emotions  Extraversion  Safety and Security Needs  Verbal Language  Self-Conscious  Neuroticism Emotions  Motives to Achieve  Ratcheting  Moral Emotions  Openness  Motives to Affiliate with  Memory  Agreeableness Others  Hypothetical  Conscientiousness  Reasoning  Problem Solving  Planning Is there anything missing from these?  Difference Between Society and Culture Society refers to a system or structure of interrelationships among individuals and groups. Culture refers to the meanings and information that are associated with those social structures and inter- relationships. Human cultures give concept of family its own unique meaning Different human cultures assign different meanings to family  Identifying Groups with Culture A meaning and information associated with them that is transmitted across generations – Language – Countries – Ethnic groups – Other groups such as gender, disability, or sexual orientation  Contrasting Culture, Race, Personality, and Popular Culture Race - More of a social construction than a biological essential – Culture provides race its meaning Racial differences are not useful for scientific or practical purposes without a clear understanding of the underlying causes of the similarities and differences observed Personality - Unique constellation of traits, attributes, qualities, and characteristics – Culture is stable across individuals, whereas personality is vastly different People have a natural propensity to create categories, especially those dealing with human characteristics. Race is not culture and the terms should not be used interchangeably Interesting issues arise when race is understood as a social construction. Category boundaries among the socially constructed races are ambiguous and vary with social Culture is a macro-social construct that characterizes groups; it is the social psychological frame within which individuals reside, much like the structure of our houses and homes. Personality refers to the unique constellation of traits, attributes, qualities, and characteristics of individuals within those frames; it refers to the individual differences that exist among individuals within groups. Individuals have their own mental representations of culture, and these differing representations may be an aspect of their personality Popular culture refers to trends in music, art, and other expressions that become popular among a group of people from time to time. Popular culture refers to values or expressions that come and go as fads or trends within a few years; culture is relatively stable over time and even across generations  Six Value Dimensions That Differentiate Cultural Groups 1. Individualism versus Collectivism. The degree to which groups will encourage tendencies for members to look after themselves and their immediate family only, or for them to belong to in-groups that look after its members in exchange for loyalty. 2. Power Distance. The degree to which groups will encourage less powerful mem-bers to accept that power is distributed unequally. 3. Uncertainty Avoidance. The degree to which groups will encourage members to feel threatened by unknown or ambiguous situations and develop beliefs, institu-tions, or rituals to avoid them. 4. Masculinity versus Femininity. The degree to which groups value success, money, and things as opposed to caring for others and quality of life, and the dis-tribution of emotional roles among genders. 5. Long-versus Short-Term Orientation. The degree to which groups encourage delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs among its members. 6. Indulgence versus Restraint. The degree to which groups allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun, or whether it suppresses gratification of needs and regulates them through strict social norms.  Contents of Culture: Objective elements – Art – Mass media – Architecture Objective elements of culture are the focus – Clothes of archaeology or physical anthropology. – Social media Objective elements of culture include – Food explicit, physical manifestations of a meaning and information system, such as – Music architecture, clothes, foods, art, or eating – Advertising utensils—anything you can see and touch. – Eating utensils – Texts  Contents of Culture: Subjective Elements of Culture Subjective elements of culture include all parts of culture that do not exist as physical artifacts. These include culture-level attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behavior. Subjective elements of culture tap into psychological processes that constitute the meaning and information systems of groups Religiousness and Culture  Reflections What Is the Association Between Culture and Mental Processes and Behavior?  Influence of Culture on Processes and Behavior Culture influences psychological processes through situational contexts Enculturation: Process of learning and adopting the ways and manners of a specific culture Culture produces changes in people in terms of their attitudes, values, and opinions Relationship between culture and individual behaviors is reciprocal, dynamic, and complex  Understanding Culture in Perspective: Universals and Culture-Specifics There are many similarities and differences in psychological processes across cultures – The process of making attributions is found in all cultures But people of different cultures make attributions in different ways Many psychological processes are universal because humans come to the world equipped with the ability to have those processes – Human cultures fill in the content of those processes in different ways  Etics and Emics Etics: Universal psychological processes or behavior Emics: Culture-specific processes or behavior – Cultural differences arise due to: Geography Climate Resources Previous culture and contact with other cultures People around the world are often different in what they do, but they are similar in why they do them