Unit One Introduction (3 hours) PDF

Hist.102 UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION (3 hours) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History Introduction This unit introduces you with the nature of history and historiography, the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent...

Hist.102 UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION (3 hours) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History Introduction This unit introduces you with the nature of history and historiography, the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interactions between societies throughout the region have shaped human history. History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. The purpose of historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events about the deeds of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving records. Historiography, on the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in historical interpretations through time. Accordingly, the unit considers popular and academic conceptions of history, the why and how of studying history and trends in historical writing in Ethiopia and the Horn focusing on Ethiopia. Finally, the unit discusses the role of geography in the region’s human history. In this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments, peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were never isolated but they interacted throughout history. As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of Ethiopia and the Horn is highly intertwined. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  differentiate between past and history.  distinguish between popular and professional conceptions of history.  identify categories of historical sources.  explain what methods historians use to study the past.  discern basic patterns of continuity and change.  explain the uses of history.  avoid judging the past solely in terms of present-day norms and values.  explain how the writing of history hasevolved over time.  discuss the role of geography in human history. 8  Hist.102 Unit Starters  What do we mean by history?  What is the relevance of knowing about the past?  Have you ever read a historical work? Do you remember the title and author of the work?  Can you name some writers of the history of Ethiopia and the Horn? A. Nature of History The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C), who is often held to be the “father of history.” In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in writing. More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past provided by historians, that is, ‘history’. Historians apply their expertise to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts of the past. Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment, which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time. Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally 9  Hist.102 divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key characteristics of the discipline. When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they are not implying that a particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region. Nor are they claiming that absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past have been changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for long periods, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components or structures of their social organization. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn remains similar and continues to have special characteristics. B. Uses of History Peoples live in the present and they plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study of the past. Why bother with the past while living in the present and anticipating what is yet to come? This section discusses the uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present. History Helps Better Understand the Present History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations. 10  Hist.102 History Provides a Sense of Identity Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions. A society without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc. History Teaches Critical Skills Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and flexibility required in many life situations. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society. To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society. Only through studying history we can grasp how and why things change; and only 11  Hist.102 through history we can understand what elements of a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-day utility. Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist in that the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification. That said, how do historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods during which they have not lived? 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. Where there are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history. Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary. Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about past events. They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions. 12  Hist.102 Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially valuableto study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate written words. In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to another, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience. Such source material is known as oral history. For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity. In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study about. 1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world. The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians notably Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.) The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.). Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world including the US. The German historian, Leopold 13  Hist.102 Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the “father of modern historiography.” Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to exploring significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth- century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of historiography (historical writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Another document describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D. Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha. This was followed by a manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have the benefit of providing insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late nineteenth century. Besides the saint’s life, the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the issues discussed in this document. 14  Hist.102 Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth. Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditurespectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labor to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one. They are also averse to quantification. Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms; they offer little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials and, though inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society. Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67). 15  Hist.102 Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromowritten in 1593. Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with first-hand information about the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System. The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of Ethiopian historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe. Thus, the missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the major topics covered by these sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents had important contribution to the development of Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased. Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors. Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about monarchs. The earliest group of these writers includeAleqa Taye Gebre- 16  Hist.102 Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and Fisseha-Giorgiswrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people. Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name. The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications. After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical works. Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects. Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger.Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork. Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C. The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the 17  Hist.102 then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively. Since then researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics. Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the other institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The IES was founded in 1963. Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here. Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains unmatched. He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research. The Institute’s library contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in the evolution of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and linguistics. At the same time, European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the region’s history. 18  Hist.102 1.4. The Geographical Context The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The region consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth’s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in a variety types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities. At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history from various locations. Thus, as much as there are many things that make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also many areas in which peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past. The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region. In this section, we will study the impact that the region’s geography has on the way people live and organize themselves into societies. Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far East. 19  Hist.102 Another element of geography factor that had profound impact on human history is drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the Nile River, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the Awash River,and the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakesystems. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt. The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio- Kenyan border. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi- desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just inside the coastline. Map 2: Physical Map of Ethiopia Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Addis Ababa, 1998), p. 9. The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems 20  Hist.102 facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting in the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions, and beliefs. Thus, studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the river basins mentioned previously. Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. The vast Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia. There is no much seasonal variation in climatic condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and Genale/Jubba that traverse the region and a few offshore islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean that are inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts. Much of the lowland territories are covered by shrub and bush as its major vegetation. Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus. Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands of the Sudan, stretching from north to south, hot lowlands were characterized in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries. Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. The high degree of interaction and the 21  Hist.102 long common history of much of the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population. Learning Activities  Discuss the similarities and differences between the past and history?  Why is history worth attention as a subject of study?  What do we mean by change and continuity in history?  What techniques do historians use to write about the past?  What are the different sources of history? How do you evaluate them?  What is the difference between historiography and history?  Who was Leopold von Ranke?  Discuss how the writing of Ethiopian history has changed over the last hundred years by using the writings of individual historians.  Briefly describe the similarities and differences between chronicles and hagiographies and their contributions to write Ethiopian history.  Describe the role of travel and missionary accounts to the study of Ethiopian history.  Explain how geographical factors shaped human history in Ethiopia and the Horn. 22