_Spencer A. Rathus - Introductory Psychology, 5th Edition (2017) (1).pdf

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 THE PROCESS...

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 THE PROCESS YOUR FEED- 4LTR Press uses a Student-Tested, Faculty-Approved process to meet the unique needs of each course. BACK PSYCH5 combines an easy-reference, paperback textbook with portable summary tear-out chapter review cards and an innovative online experience — all at an affordable price. With up-to-date research and events, PSYCH5 covers the most significant topics in introductory psychology. YOUR Explore psychology content anywhere, anytime, and on most devices with PSYCH Online! BOOK STUDENTS SAY INSTRUCTORS REQUIRE Students taking introductory psychology as a Those teaching introductory psychology need general requirement often find the theories and learning solutions that engage today’s students applications interesting, but are overwhelmed by paired with up-to-date research and examples. the volume of key terms and scientific material. PSYCH5 continues to focus on both current and In addition to a visually engaging text, PSYCH historical events with personal stories to engage Online provides useful interactive resources students. New “concept clip” videos in PSYCH such as brief concept clip video animations to Online provide even more opportunities for help students better understand psychology and students to understand core concepts in a visually relate concepts to their everyday interactions. engaging manner — while reading the chapter Our research never ends. Continual feedback from you ensures content online, if used in your course lecture, that we keep up with your changing needs. STUDENT RESOURCES: or the night before an exam. Tear-Out T Chapter Review Cards INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES PSYCH Online available at cengagebrain.com: AVAILABLE AT CENGAGE.COM/LOGIN: Interactive Reading Interactive Figures All Student Resources Videos Assignable Chapter Readings and Assessments Practice Quizzes LMS Integration Flashcards Instructor’s Manual Lecture Outlines and Additional T Topics Classroom Demonstrations and Activities Student Projects and Activities Recommended Videos, W Websites, ebsites, and Podcasts T Test Bank PowerPoint® Slides www.cengage.com/4LTRPRESS Discussion Questions Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 THE PROCESS YOUR FEED- 4LTR Press uses a Student-Tested, Faculty-Approved process to meet the unique needs of each course. BACK PSYCH5 combines an easy-reference, paperback textbook with portable summary tear-out chapter review cards and an innovative online experience — all at an affordable price. With up-to-date research and events, PSYCH5 covers the most significant topics in introductory psychology. YOUR Explore psychology content anywhere, anytime, and on most devices with PSYCH Online! BOOK STUDENTS SAY INSTRUCTORS REQUIRE Students taking introductory psychology as a Those teaching introductory psychology need general requirement often find the theories and learning solutions that engage today’s students applications interesting, but are overwhelmed by paired with up-to-date research and examples. the volume of key terms and scientific material. PSYCH5 continues to focus on both current and In addition to a visually engaging text, PSYCH historical events with personal stories to engage Online provides useful interactive resources students. New “concept clip” videos in PSYCH such as brief concept clip video animations to Online provide even more opportunities for help students better understand psychology and students to understand core concepts in a visually relate concepts to their everyday interactions. engaging manner — while reading the chapter Our research never ends. Continual feedback from you ensures content online, if used in your course lecture, that we keep up with your changing needs. STUDENT RESOURCES: or the night before an exam. Tear-Out T Chapter Review Cards INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES PSYCH Online available at cengagebrain.com: AVAILABLE AT CENGAGE.COM/LOGIN: Interactive Reading Interactive Figures All Student Resources Videos Assignable Chapter Readings and Assessments Practice Quizzes LMS Integration Flashcards Instructor’s Manual Lecture Outlines and Additional T Topics Classroom Demonstrations and Activities Student Projects and Activities Recommended Videos, W Websites, ebsites, and Podcasts T Test Bank PowerPoint® Slides www.cengage.com/4LTRPRESS Discussion Questions Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  THE PSYCH SOLUTION Print PSYCH5 CHAPTER 1 + What is Psychology? Online CHAPTER 2 Biology and Psychology PSYCH5 delivers all the key terms and PSYCH Online provides the complete core concepts for the Introductory narrative from the printed text with Psychology course. additional interactive media and the unique functionality of StudyBits—all available on nearly any device! What is a StudyBit™? Created through a deep investigation of students’ challenges and workflows, the StudyBit™ functionality of PSYCH Online enables students of different generations and learning styles to study more effectively by allowing them to learn their way. Here’s how they work: WEAK RATE AND ORGANIZE STUDYBITS COLLECT Rate your FAIR WHAT’S understanding and IMPORTANT use the color-coding Create STRONG to quickly organize StudyBits your study time as you highlight UNASSIGNED and personalize text, images or your flashcards take notes! and quizzes. CORRECT TRACK/MONITOR PROGRESS 85% INCORRECT Use Concept PERSONALIZE ZE QUIZZES Tracker to decide Filter by your StudyBits INCORRECT how you’ll spend to personalize quizzes or study time and just take chapter quizzes INCORRECT study YOUR way! off-the-shelf. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  PSYCH5 © 2018, 2016 Cengage Learning® Spencer Rathus ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or Product Manager: Clinton Kernen by any means, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without Content/Media Developer: Sarah Keeling the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Marketing Manager: Andrew Ginsburg Marketing Coordinator: Quynton Johnson For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Content Project Manager: Darrell E. 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Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 SPENCER A. RATHUS PSYCH 5 BRIEF CONTENTS 1 What Is Psychology? 2 2 Biology and Psychology 30 3 Sensation and Perception 62 4 Consciousness 92 5 Learning 120 6 Memory: Remembrance of Things Past—and Future 146 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 174 8 Motivation and Emotion 204 9 The Voyage through the Life Span 232 10 Personality: Theory and Measurement 260 11 Stress, Health, and Coping 286 12 Psychological Disorders 308 13 Methods of Therapy 334 14 Social Psychology 358 Appendix: Statistics 386 Answers to Study Tools Questions 400 References 402 Index 427 Quiet Noise Creative/Getty Images iii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  CONTENTS 3-4 Hearing 80 3-5 The Other Senses 84 3-6 ESP: Is there Perception without Sensation? 87 4 Consciousness 92 Image Source / Alamy Stock Photo 4-1 What is Consciousness? 93 4-2 Sleep and Dreams 96 4-3 Altering Consciousness: Hypnosis, Meditation, and Biofeedback 102 4-4 Altering Consciousness through Drugs 106 4-5 Depressants 108 4-6 Stimulants 110 1 What Is Psychology? 2 4-7 Hallucinogenics 114 1-1 Psychology as a Science 4 1-2 Historical Foundations of Psychology 7 1-3 Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology 11 5 Learning 120 5-1 Learning, Experience, and Change 121 1-4 How Psychologists Study Behavior and Mental 5-2 Classical Conditioning: Learning What is Linked Processes 15 to What 122 1-5 Methods of Research 18 5-3 Applications of Classical Conditioning 126 1-6 Ethics in Psychological Research 23 5-4 Operant Conditioning: Learning What does What 1-7 Critical Thinking 24 to What 129 5-5 Applications of Operant Conditioning 136 2 Biology and Psychology 30 5-6 Cognitive Factors in Learning 138 2-1 The Nervous System: On Being Wired 32 2-2 The Divisions of the Nervous System 38 2-3 The Brain: Wider than the Sky 41 6 Memory: Remembrance 2-4 A Voyage through the Brain 43 of Things Past—and 2-5 The Cerebral Cortex 46 Future 146 2-6 The Endocrine System 49 6-1 Kinds of Memory 147 2-7 Evolution and Heredity 52 6-2 Processes of Memory 150 6-3 Sensory Memory 153 3 Sensation and Perception 62 6-4 Short-Term Memory 154 3-1 Sensation and Perception 63 6-5 Long-Term Memory 157 3-2 Vision 67 6-6 Forgetting 161 3-3 Visual Perception 73 6-7 The Biology of Memory 167 iv CONTENTS Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Lottie Davies/Photodisc/Getty Images 10 Personality: Theory and Measurement 260 10-1 The Psychodynamic Perspective 262 10-2 The Trait Perspective 268 10-3 Learning-Theory Perspectives 271 10-4 The Humanistic–Existential Perspective 273 10-5 The Sociocultural Perspective 277 10-6 Measurement of Personality 279 11 Stress, Health, and Coping 286 7 Thinking, Language, and 11-1 Stress: What it is, Where it Comes from 288 11-2 Psychological Moderators of Stress 293 Intelligence 174 11-3 Stress and the Body 295 7-1 Thinking 175 11-4 Psychology and Chronic Health Problems 299 7-2 Language 181 7-3 Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion 185 7-4 Theories of Intelligence 189 12 Psychological Disorders 308 7-5 The Measurement of Intelligence 193 12-1 What are Psychological Disorders? 309 7-6 Nature and Nurture in Intelligence 198 12-2 Anxiety Disorders 312 12-3 Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders 315 8 Motivation and Emotion 204 12-4 Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 316 12-5 Dissociative Disorders 317 8-1 The Psychology of Motivation 205 12-6 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders 318 8-2 Theories of Motivation 206 12-7 Mood Disorders 319 8-3 Hunger 209 12-8 Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders 324 8-4 Sexual Motivation and Sexual Orientation 214 12-9 Personality Disorders 328 8-5 Achievement Motivation 219 8-6 Emotion 220 8-7 Theories of Emotion 224 9 The Voyage through the Life Span 232 9-1 Prenatal Development 233 marco betti/Alamy Stock Photo 9-2 Childhood: Physical Development 235 9-3 Childhood: Cognitive Development 237 9-4 Childhood: Social and Emotional Development 244 9-5 Adolescence 247 9-6 Emerging Adulthood 251 9-7 Adulthood 252 CONTENTS v Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  13-6 Group Therapies 347 13-7 Does Psychotherapy Work? 349 13-8 Biological Therapies 352 14 Social Psychology 358 Ambrophoto / Alamy Stock Photo 14-1 Attitudes 360 14-2 Prejudice and Discrimination 364 14-3 Attraction and Love 365 14-4 Social Perception 368 14-5 Social Influence 370 14-6 Aggression 375 14-7 Group Behavior 377 13 Methods of Therapy 334 13-1 What is Psychotherapy? 336 13-2 Psychodynamic Therapies 338 Appendix: Statistics 386 13-3 Humanistic Therapies 339 Answers to Study Tools Questions 400 13-4 Behavior Therapy 341 References 402 13-5 Cognitive Therapies 345 Index 427 vi CONTENTS Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  1 What Is Psychology? Image Source / Alamy Stock Photo LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you will be able to… 1-1 Define psychology and describe what psychologists do. 1-5 Explain how psychologists engage in research— After you finish including methods of observation, correlation, 1-2 Describe the origins of psychology and discuss people and experimentation—to learn about behavior this chapter, go who have made significant contributions to the field. and mental processes. 1-3 Identify the theoretical perspectives from which to PAGE 25 for 1-6 Discuss ethical standards that govern psychological psychologists today view behavior and mental processes. research and practice with humans and animals. STUDY TOOLS 1-7 Identify and discuss principles of critical thinking. 1-4 Outline the scientific method, and explain the relationship between samples and populations. 2 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 M y favorite place: The checkout counter of the supermarket. After being remembered their experiences while undergoing therapy, often under hypnosis. Tales of alien buffeted about by the crowds abduction are widely known in the aisles and trying to throughout our culture, so it convince myself that I really is not at all surprising that the will survive until the people in “memories” of people who line ahead of me are checked claim to have been inducted by out, I am rewarded by the aliens would tend to coincide display of all the supermarket (Meyersburg et al., 2009; tabloids. The headlines cry Swami et al., 2009). Bloomberg/Getty Images out. Each week, there are Abductees generally claim 10 new sightings of Elvis that they are awakened in their and 10 new encounters with sleep by the aliens and unable extraterrestrials. There are to move. Psychologists know 10 new “absolutely proven Truth or Fiction. that many of our voluntary The world is flooded with sense and effective” ways to take weight nonsense. How can you sort out truth muscles—the ones involved in off and 10 new ways to conquer from fiction? movement—are “paralyzed” stress and depression. There when we sleep, which is why are 10 new ways to tell if your we usually don’t thrash about partner has been cheating and, of course, 10 new (and assault our bed partners) when we dream predictions by astrologers and psychics. (Torontali et al., 2014). Hallucinations Hallucinations—seeing and Extraterrestrials regularly kidnap us Earthlings. hearing things that are not really there—are quite Although they possess the technology to leap common as we are waking from a sleep-paralyzed between the stars, aliens must apparently prod state, and it seems that the reported experiences and poke us to figure out how we work. While we of “abductees” fit the pattern. update our iPhones with the latest apps and music, tabloid drawings suggest that aliens have been flying the same model flying saucer for decades. Their sense of style is nothing to text home about. Although we can find some humor in tales of abduction by aliens, psychologists and other WHAT DO YOU THINK? FOLKLORE, COMMON SENSE, OR NONSENSE? scientists are interested in the questions these SELECT T FOR “TRUTH” OR F FOR “FICTION,” AND THEN CHECK THE ACCURACY OF YOUR ANSWERS AS YOU READ THROUGH THE CHAPTER. tales raise about human nature and the distinction between sensationalism and science. What do T F More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with contents similar to those in the book you’re now reading. we know about people who claim to have been T F The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method abducted by aliens? How can we sort truth from that is still used in psychology. fiction and decide whether we will believe them? T F Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology. Psychologists who have studied claimed T F Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, alien kidnappings conclude that the kidnappings the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her. never occurred. However, the people making T F You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the the claims are not necessarily mentally ill, nor outcome of a presidential election. are they necessarily lying (Ladd & Borshuk, T F In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know 2013). By and large, these are people who have who is receiving the real treatment and who is not. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 3 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Psychologists also know that people are quite by aliens and being subjected to tests by them. open to suggestion (Bernstein & Loftus, 2009; But is there scientific evidence that people have Vyse, 2014). Memories are not perfect snapshots. been abducted by aliens? In sum, when we subject When trial witnesses are asked leading questions— the stories in the supermarket tabloids to scientific questions that might encourage them to recall analysis, we usually find that they fall short of any events in a certain way—the opposing attorney will reasonable requirements of evidence. usually object (“Leading the witness, your Honor”). This book will take you on a journey. It’s not a Sometimes, the person interviewing the supposed journey into outer space. It’s a journey into the inner kidnap victim asks leading questions, looking for space of thinking critically about the world around you, experiences with aliens. about stories and arguments made by other people, All in all, “UFO memories may be constructed about human behavior and mental processes. In our from bits and pieces of sleep-related hallucinations, overview of reported alien abductions, we touched nightmares, and media attention, and fixed solidly on people’s memories, the state of consciousness into place with the suggestion of hypnosis and known as sleep, hallucinations, hypnosis, the search the validation of support groups” (Clark & Loftus, for stimulating events, social influences on witnesses, 1996 ). “Abductees” may also be trying to escape, and the effects of social support and the media. All temporarily, from their humdrum lives—as might be these, and much, much more, lie within the province buyers of supermarket tabloids (Clancy et al., 2002). of psychology. We will see who psychologists are, Psychologists have thus worked to explain how what they do, what they have learned, and perhaps it can be that many people report being abducted most important, how they sort out truth from fiction. 1-1 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good— for example, to help individuals cope with problems such as anxiety and depression. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and men- When possible, descriptive terms and concepts— tal processes. Topics of interest to psychologists include such as anxiety and depression—are interwoven into the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language, thought, growth and theories. Theories propose reasons for relationships development, personality, stress and health, psychological among events, as in perception of a threat can arouse disorders, ways of treating those disorders, sexual behav- feelings of anxiety. They allow us to derive explana- ior, and the behavior of people in social settings such as tions and predictions. Many psychological theories groups and organizations. combine statements about behavior (such as eating Sciences have certain goals. Psychology, like other or aggression), mental processes (such as attitudes sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control and mental images), and biological processes. For the events it studies. Psychology thus seeks to describe, instance, many of our responses to drugs such as alco- explain, predict, and control behavior and mental pro- hol and marijuana can be measured as overt behavior, cesses. Note that the goal of controlling behavior and and they are presumed to reflect our (mental) expec- mental processes doesn’t tations of the drugs and the biological effects of the mean that psycholo- drugs themselves. psychology the science that gists seek ways to make A satisfactory psychological theory allows us to pre- studies behavior and mental people do their bidding, dict behavior. For instance, a theory of hunger should processes like puppets on strings. allow us to predict when people will or will not eat. If theory a set of hypothesized our observations cannot be adequately explained by, or statements about the relationships Rather, psychologists among events seek to understand the predicted from, a given theory, we should consider revis- factors that influence ing or replacing it. 4 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  The remainder of this chapter presents an overview self-defeating behavior. For example, they may help cli- of psychology as a science. You will see that psychologists ents face “threats,” such as public speaking, by exposing have diverse interests and fields of specialization. We dis- them gradually to situations in which they make presen- cuss the history of psychology and the major perspectives tations to actual or virtual groups (see virtual therapy from which today’s psychologists view behavior. Finally, in Chapter 13). Clinical psychologists are the largest we consider the research methods psychologists use to subgroup of psychologists (see Figure 1.1 on page 6). study behavior and mental processes. Counseling psychologists, like clinical psychologists, use interviews and tests to define their clients’ problems. 1-1a WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO Their clients typically have adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. For example, clients may Psychologists share a keen interest in behavior, but have trouble making academic or vocational decisions; they may differ markedly in other ways. Psychologists LGBT clients may have difficulty coping with prejudice engage in research, practice, and teaching. Some and discrimination. researchers engage primarily in basic, or pure, research. School psychologists are employed by school systems Pure research is undertaken because the researcher to identify and assist students who have problems that is interested in the research topic. Pure research has interfere with learning. They help schools make decisions no immediate application to personal or social problems about the placement of students in special classes. and has therefore been characterized as research for its Educational psychologists, like school psychologists, own sake. However, although pure research is sparked attempt to facilitate learning, but they usually focus on by curiosity and the desire to know and understand, course planning and instructional methods for a school today’s pure research frequently enhances tomorrow’s system rather than on individual children. Educational way of life. For example, pure research on learning and psychologists research issues such as how learning is motivation in pigeons, rats, and monkeys done early in affected by psychological factors such as motivation and the 20th century has found applications in today’s school intelligence, sociocultural factors such as poverty and systems. It has shown, for example, that learning often acculturation, and teachers. takes time and repetition and also profits from “booster Developmental psychologists study the changes— shots” (repetition after the learning goal has been physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—that occur reached). Pure research into the workings of the ner- throughout the life span. They attempt to sort out the influ- vous system has enhanced knowledge of disorders such ences of heredity and the environment on development. as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Personality psychologists identify and measure Other psychologists engage in applied research, human traits and determine influences on human thought which is designed to find solutions to specific personal processes, feelings, and behavior. They are particularly or social problems. concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, sexual Many psychologists do not conduct research. orientation, and gender roles. Instead, they practice psychology by applying psychologi- Social psychologists are concerned with the cal knowledge to help individuals change their behavior nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, so that they can meet their own goals more effectively. Still other psychologists primarily teach. They share and behavior in social situations. Whereas personality psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and psychologists tend to look within the person to explain workshops. Psychologists may also engage in all three: behavior, social psychologists tend to focus on social research, practice, and teaching. influences. Environmental psychologists study the ways that people and the environment—the natural environment 1-1b FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY and the human-made environment—influence one Psychologists are found in a number of specialties. another. For example, we know that extremes of tem- Although some psychologists wear more than one hat, perature and loud noises most carry out their functions in the following fields. interfere with learning in pure research research conducted without concern for Clinical psychologists help people with psycho- school. Environmental immediate applications logical disorders adjust to the demands of life. Clinical psychologists study ways psychologists evaluate problems such as anxiety and to encourage people to applied research research conducted in an effort to find depression through interviews and psychological recycle and to preserve solutions to particular problems tests. They help clients resolve problems and change bastions of wilderness. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 5 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  FIG.1.1 THE PSYCHOLOGISTS: PSYCHOLOGISTS WITH NEW DOCTORATES VERSUS MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) Cimmerian/Getty Images HUMAN SERVICE PROVIDER SUBFIELDS Clinical Child Psychology School Psychology Counseling Psychology Clinical Psychology WORK SETTING Schools/Educational Business and Government Independent Practice Other Human Service APA Members Hospitals College or University New Doctorates TYPE OF DEGREE Psy.D. Ph.D. MEMBERS OF MINORITY GROUPS American Indian Latin American African American Asian American GENDER Men Women 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% sdominick/Getty Images More women and members of ethnic minorities are entering the field of psychology today. The percentage of new psychologists with Psy.D. degrees is also growing. Source: Adapted from the American Psychological Association (2009). Doctoral Psychology Workforce Fast Facts. Health Service Provider Subfields. Center for Workforce Studies. http://research.apa.org/fastfacts-09.pdf. © Copyright 2009 APA Center for Workforce Studies. Washington, DC; and from American Psychological Association (2014). 2013 APA Directory. Compiled by Center for Workforce Studies, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4. APA Center for Workforce Studies. Washington, DC. Psychologists in all specialties may conduct For example, experimental psychologists have experiments. However, those called experimental studied what areas of the brain are involved in pro- psychologists specialize in basic processes such as cessing math problems or listening to music. They the nervous system, sensation and perception, learn- use people or animals, such as pigeons and rats, to ing and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. study learning. 6 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system. They deal with legal mat- ters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed a crime. Forensic psycholo- gists may also treat psychologically ill offenders, AP Images/Swen Pförtner/picture-alliance/dpa consult with attorneys on matters such as picking a jury, and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes. They may conduct research on matters ranging from evaluation of eyewitness testimony to methods of interrogation. Sport psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd, use cogni- tive strategies such as positive visualization (imagin- ing themselves making the right moves) to enhance The Origins of Aggression? performance, and avoid choking under pressure. Why are TV crime shows so popular? Why are people fascinated by psychopaths? Why do so many boys and men enjoy playing video games such as Grand Theft Auto, God of War, Call of Duty, 1-2 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS and Battlefield? Psychologists investigate the origins of aggression and violence. They have found that aggressive people and mass OF PSYCHOLOGY murderers are more likely to play violent video games. Does this mean that violent video games cause violent behavior? Could it also Have you heard the expression “Know thyself”? It mean that violent individuals are more likely to seek out the games? was proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Could both be true? (More on this in Chapter 5.) Socrates about 2,500 years ago. Psychology, which is in large part the endeavor to know ourselves, is as old as history and as modern as today. Knowledge of Industrial psychologists focus on the relationships the history of psychology allows us to between people and work. Organizational psychologists appreciate its theoretical conflicts, study the behavior of people in organizations such as its place among the sciences, the businesses. Human factors psychologists make technical evolution of its methods, and its systems such as automobile dashboards and computer social and political roles. keyboards more user-friendly. Consumer psychologists study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. They advise store managers on ARISTOTLE how to lay out the aisles of a supermarket in ways that Although he lived 2,400 boost impulse buying, how to arrange window displays to years ago, the Greek Cengage Learning attract customers, and how to make newspaper ads and philosopher Aristotle made television commercials more persuasive. many contributions to Health psychologists study the effects of stress on contemporary psychology: health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular dis- ▸ He argued that science could rationally treat only ease, and cancer. Health psychologists also guide clients information gathered by the senses. toward healthier behavior patterns, such as exercising ▸ He enumerated the so-called five senses of vision, and quitting smoking. hearing, smell, taste, and touch. ▸ He explored the nature of cause and effect. ▸ He pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. ▸ He outlined laws of associationism that have lain T F Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in at the heart of learning theory for more than two psychology. millennia. ▸ He also declared that people are more motivated It is not true that men receive the majority of to seek pleasure and avoid pain—a view that doctoral degrees in psychology. Women do. remains as current today as it was in ancient Greece. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 7 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Another ancient contributor to psychology was the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 bce). Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the T F The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates sug- stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. Then he gested a research method that is still used in delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, psychology. sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and Yes, Socrates did suggest a research motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. method that is still used in psychology— introspection. The method is based on Socrates’ advice to “Know thyself,” which has remained a motto of psychology T F More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on ever since. psychology with contents similar to those of the one you’re now reading. we must move on to the development of psychology as It is true that Aristotle wrote a book a laboratory science during the second half of the 19th on psychology with contents similar century. Some historians set the marker date at 1860. to the one you’re now reading more It was then that Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) than 2,000 years ago. In fact, the outline published his landmark book Elements of Psychophysics, for PSYCH could have been written by which showed how physical events (such as lights and Aristotle. sounds) are related to psychological sensation and per per- ception. Fechner also showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events. Most historians set Other ancient Greek philosophers also contributed the debut of modern psychology as a laboratory science in to psychology. Around 400 bce, Democritus suggested the year 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. a mind. (Contemporary psychologists still talk about the interaction of biological and mental processes.) He 1-2a STRUCTURALISM pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Democritus was one of the first to raise the The German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) question of whether there is free will or choice. Putting looked as if he were going to be a problem child. He did it another way, where do the influences of others end and poorly in elementary school—his mind would wander— our “real selves” begin? and he had to repeat a grade. Eventually he attended Socrates suggested that we should rely on ratio- medical school because he wanted to earn a good living. nal thought and introspection—careful examination But he did not like working with patients and dedicated of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to gain self- himself to philosophy and psychology. knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social Like Aristotle, Wundt saw the mind as a natural creatures who influence one another. event that could be studied scientifically, like light, heat, Had we room enough and time, we could trace and the flow of blood. Wundt used psychology’s roots to thinkers farther back in time than introspection to try to discover the the ancient Greeks, and we could trace its development basic elements of experience. through the great thinkers of the Renaissance. As it is, Wundt and his students founded the school of psy psy- chology called structuralism. introspection deliberate WILHELM WUNDT Structuralism attempted to looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts Wilhelm Wundt, the founder break conscious experience down of structuralism, attempted and emotions into objective sensations, such to break down conscious structuralism the school of experience into as sight or taste, and subjective Cengage Learning psychology that argues that the mind sensations such feelings, such as emotional consists of three basic elements— as sight and taste, responses, and mental sensations, feelings, and images— emotions, and mental that combine to form experience imagery. images such as memories or dreams. Structuralists 8 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 believed that the mind functions hungry. But what does the by combining objective and sub- WILLIAM JAMES rat think when it is learn- jective elements of experience. William James wrote ing to turn right? the first modern Does it seem absurd 1-2b FUNCTIONALISM psychology textbook to try to place yourself in in 1890. He wrote, “I the “mind” of a rat? So it Toward the end of the 19th wished, by treating Psychology like a seemed to John Broadus Cengage Learning century, psychologist William natural science, to Watson (1878–1958), the James (1842–1910) became a help her become founder of American major figure in the development one.” behaviorism. Watson of psychology in the United was asked to con- States. He focused on the rela- sider the contents tion between conscious experience and behavior. He of a rat’s “mind” as argued, for example, that the stream of consciousness one of the requirements for his doctoral degree, which is fluid and continuous. Introspection convinced him he received from the University of Chicago in 1903. that experience cannot be broken down into objective Functionalism was the dominant view of psychology sensations and subjective feelings as the structuralists at the University of Chicago, and functionalists were maintained. concerned with the stream of consciousness as well as William James was a founder of the school of observable behavior. But Watson (1913) believed that functionalism, which focused on behavior as well as if psychology was to be a natural science, like physics the mind or consciousness. Functionalists looked at how or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurmeasur- our experience helps us function more adaptively in our able events—that is, to behavior alone—hence the term environments—for example, how habits help us cope behaviorism. with common situations. (When eating with a spoon, we Behaviorism is the school of psychology that do not create an individual plan to bring each morsel of focuses on learning observable behavior. The term food to our mouths.) They also turned to the laboratory observable refers to behaviors that are observable by for direct observations as a way to supplement introspec- means of specialized instruments, such as heart rate, tion. Structuralists tended to ask, “What are the pieces blood pressure, and brain waves. These behaviors are that make up thinking and experience?” In contrast, public—they can be measured easily and different functionalists tended to ask, “How do behavior and men- observers would agree about their existence and features. tal processes help people adapt to the requirements of Given their focus on behavior, behaviorists define psy- their lives?” chology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behav- James was also influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809– ior and mental processes. 1882) theory of evolution. Earlier in the 19th century, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) also contributed to the British naturalist Darwin had argued that organ- behaviorism. He believed that organisms learn to isms with adaptive features—that is, the “fittest”—sur “fittest”—sur- behave in certain ways because they have been vive and reproduce. Functionalists adapted Darwin’s reinforced for doing so—that is, their behavior has a theory and proposed that adaptive behavior patterns are positive outcome. He demonstrated that laboratory ani- learned and maintained. Maladaptive behavior patterns mals can be trained to carry out behaviors through stra- tend to drop out, and only the fittest behavior patterns tegic use of reinforcers, survive. These adaptive actions tend to be repeated and such as food. He trained functionalism the school of become habits. James wrote that “habit is the enormous rats to turn in circles, psychology that emphasizes the uses flywheel of society.” Habit keeps the engine of civiliza- climb ladders, and push or functions of the mind rather than tion running. toys across the floor. the elements of experience Because Skinner demon- behaviorism the school of strated that remarkable psychology that defines psychology 1-2c BEHAVIORISM as the study of observable behavior combinations of behav- and studies relationships between Imagine you have placed a hungry rat in a maze. It iors could be taught by stimuli and responses meanders down a pathway that ends in a T. It can then means of reinforcement, turn left or right. If you consistently reward the rat many psychologists reinforcement a stimulus that follows a response and increases the with food for turning right at this point, it will learn adopted the view that, frequency of the response to turn right when it arrives there, at least when it is in principle, one could CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 9 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  to structuralists, they claimed that we cannot explain FIG.1.2 THE POWER OF REINFORCEMENT human perceptions, emotions, or thought processes in terms of basic units. Perceptions are more than the sums of their parts: Gestalt psychologists saw our per per- ceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts, as we see in Figure 1.3. Gestalt psychologists showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur. In Figure 1.3A, the dots in the centers of the configura- tions are the same size, yet we may perceive them as Tom McHugh/Science Source being different in size because of their surroundings. The second symbol in each line in part B is identical, FIG.1.3 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY AND THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT Behaviorists have shown that we can teach animals (and people) complex behaviors by first reinforcing approximations to the goal or target behavior. For example, we might first drop a food pellet into our feathered friend’s cage when she drops the star anywhere on the tray, and then demand closer tries before reinforcing her. With people, of course, we can reinforce desired behavior by saying things like “Good” and “That’s right,” or “You’re getting there.” A. Are the dots in the center of the configurations the same size? Why not take a ruler and measure them? explain complex human behavior in terms of thousands of instances of learning through reinforcement (see Figure 1.2). 1-2d GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY In the 1920s, another school of psychology— Gestalt psychology—was prominent in Germany. In the 1930s, B. Is the second symbol in each line the three founders of the school—Max Wertheimer the letter B or the number 13? (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967)—left Europe to escape the Nazi threat. They carried on their work in the United States, giving further impetus to the growing American ascendance in psychology. Gestalt psychologists focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solv- C. Which of the gray squares ing. The German word Gestalt translates roughly to is brighter? “pattern” or “organized whole.” In contrast to behav- iorists, Gestalt psycholo- Gestalt psychologists have shown that we tend to gestalt psychology the school gists argued that we interpret objects and people according to their of psychology that emphasizes the cannot hope to under- context. You interpret somebody’s running toward tendency to organize perceptions stand human nature by you differently when you are in a dark alley or into wholes and to integrate separate watching a football game. Interpret the examples focusing only on overt stimuli into meaningful patterns shown above. behavior. In contrast 10 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 but in the top row we may 1-2e PSYCHOANALYSIS perceive it as a B and in the SIGMUND FREUD Psychoanalysis is the name bottom row as the num- Sigmund Freud, the of both the theory of personal personal- ber 13. The symbol has founder of psychoanaly- sis, is the often the ity and the method of psycho psycho- not changed, but its con- first person that therapy developed by Sigmund text has. The inner squares comes to mind Cengage Learning Freud (1856–1939). As a in part C are equally when people are asked to name a theory of personality, psy- bright, but they do not psychologist. choanalysis proposes that appear so because of their much of our lives is gov- contrasting backgrounds. erned by unconscious ideas Gestalt psychologists and impulses that originate in believed that learning could be active and purposeful, childhood conflicts. As a method of psychotherapy, not merely responsive and mechanical as in Watson’s psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into and Skinner’s experiments. They demonstrated that