Speaking Skills - Chapter 2

**[Chapter 2. The Expressive Macro Skills - Speaking]** **Introduction** **Lesson 1:** Nature and Purposes of Speaking Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker or listener (or listeners) and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding (or list...

**[Chapter 2. The Expressive Macro Skills - Speaking]** **Introduction** **Lesson 1:** Nature and Purposes of Speaking Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker or listener (or listeners) and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding (or listening with understanding). Both speaker and listener have a positive function to perform. In simple terms, the speaker has to encode the message he wishes to convey in appropriate language, while the listener (no less actively) has to decode (or interpret) the message. The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understand, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary. In addition, they should observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation. To help learners develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors or teachers can use a balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output. **Lesson 2:** Mechanics and Process of Speaking As the primary means of communication, voice plays an important role in daily life. Voice also conveys personal information such as social status, personality traits, and the emotional state of the speaker. In the broad sense, voice refers to the sound we produce to communicate meaning, ideas, opinions, etc. In the narrow sense, voice, as in this review, refers to sounds produced by vocal fold vibration, or voiced sounds. **Stages of Speaking Process:** **1. Breathing stage** Breathing, which is primarily concerned with maintaining life, is secondarily a force assisting in vocalization. It consists of two phases: inhalation and exhalation. *Lungs* \- Serves as a reservoir of air \- As you inhale, fill the lungs comfortably in preparation for speaking. *Diapragm* \- A large sheet of muscle separating the chest cavity from the abdomen \- Gives pressure to the breath stream. \- Forms the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen **2. Phonation stage** Phonation takes place when voice is produced in speaking as the expiratory air stream from the lungs goes up through the trachea or windpipe to the larynx. *Larynx* \- Principal organ of phonation \- Found at the top of trachea \- Protuberance is known as the "Adam's apple" *Vocal Chords* \- A pair of bundles of muscles and cartilages \- Open and closes at various degrees *Trachea* \- Also known as windpipe \- Passageway of air going up from the lungs **3. Resonation stage** The voice production in phonation is weak. It becomes strong and rich only when amplified and modified by human resonators. Resonation is the process of voice amplification and modification. *Pharynx* \- common passageway for air and food \- located behind the nose and mouth and includes cavity at the back of the tongue \- division of the pharynx: 1\. Nasal Pharynx 2\. Oral Pharynx 3\. Laryngeal Pharynx *Mouth* \- Divided into the vestibule and the oral cavity proper \- Vestibule is felt by placing the tongue tip outside the teeth but inside the lips \- Oral cavity is felt by retracting the tongue, closing the jaws and moving the tongue. **4. Articulation stage** Articulation occurs when the tone produced in the larynx is changed into specific sounds. This is the result of the movement of the articulators towards the points of articulation. *Lips* \- Highly flexible \- Can be moved into numerous positions essential to articulation *Teeth* \- Serve as one of the important surface in articulation \- Embedded in the alveolar ridge or gum ridges of the oral cavity *Dome* \- Also known as the hard palate \- Bony roof of the mouth \- Serves as an important surface against which the tongue makes contact *Uvula* \- Small nub on the lower border of the soft palate \- Movable tip of the midline of the free border of the soft palate *Velum* \- Also known as soft palate \- Separates the nasal pharynx from the oral cavity \- Flexible curtain attached along the rear border of the hard palate *Tongue* \- Flexible organ consisting of muscles, glands and connective tissues **Lesson 3:** Speech Styles and Registers **Styles** a\. ***Frozen style*** is the most formal style used in formal situations and ceremonies.Examples are in written form (historical documents, and formal documents). b\. ***Formal style*** is used in formal speech, formal meeting, office correspondence, lesson books for school, etc. c\. ***Consultative style*** refers to ordinary conversation held at school, in meeting or conversation that leads to result and production. It is the most operational one between casual and formal. d\. ***Casual style*** is used to speak with friends, family or relatives, during the leisure time, while break or recreation, etc. e\. ***Intimate style*** is used with people who have close relationships with the speaker. By using this style those people do not need to use complete sentences with clear articulation, they just simply use short words. **Registers** a\. ***Frozen*** is also referred to as static register. Printed unchanging language, such as Biblical quotations, often contains archaisms. Examples are the Pledge of Allegiance of the United States of America and other \"static\" vocalizations that are recited in a ritualistic monotone. The wording is the same every time it is spoken. b\. ***Formal*** is one-way participation; no interruption; technical vocabulary or exact definitions are important; includes presentations or introductions between strangers. c\. ***Consultative*** involves two way participation. Background information is provided prior knowledge is not assumed. Back-channel behavior such as \"uh huh\", \"I see\", etc. is common. Interruptions are allowed. Usual conversations are between teacher/student, doctor/patient, etc. d***. Casua***l is within in group friends and acquaintances; no background information provided ellipsis and slang common, interruptions common. This is common among friends in a social setting. e\. ***Intimate*** is non-public; intonation more important than wording or grammar; private vocabulary. Also includes non-verbal messages. This is most common among family members and close friends. **Lesson 4:** Austin and Searle's Speech Acts L Austin (1962 -93) says that "the utterances that is what the people say are almost equivalent to their actions". J.Searle (1969-21) proposes that \"the speech act is the basic unit of communication.\" Speech act theory is concerned with what people \"do\" with words, emphasizing on the function of language. It is considers that \"to say something" may be to do something and conclude that in uttering, one can perform three acts simultaneously: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is dealing with the meaning of the sentence or utterance itself. Illocutionary act is considered as an act performed in saying something. Then, the perlocutionary act is the act performed by or as a result of saying. 1\. Utterance act: act of saying something 2\. Propositional act: referring to something or expressing a predication about something 3. Illocutionary act: the function (assertion, warning, request) **Three forces/acts** 1\. *Locutionary force*: linguistic form of the utterance Austin (1962-94) says that the utterance of certain noises, certain words construction. In other words, a locutionary act is an act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression. In a simple way, locutionary act is the meaning of what a speaker say, for example in the utterance \"I\'d like to order a cup of coffee\", the locutionary act is the speaker wants to order a cup of coffee. 2\. ***Illocutionary force***: the meaning of the utterance Illocutionary acts are characteristically performed in the utterance of sounds or making of marks according J.Searle (1969-42). Illocutionary act is also known as illocutionary force. The important point of illocutionary act is force. Illocutionary act carried out by a speaker making an utterance is the act viewed in terms of the utterance\'s significance within a conventional system of social interaction. Illocutions are acts defined by social conventions, acts such as requesting, giving help, expressing dislike, guessing, showing confuse, expressing angry, disbelieving, asserting, giving clarification, refusing, showing curiosity, showing bored, showing worried, suggesting, admitting, and commanding. To make the illocutionary act easier to understand, here the writer gives the example. In the utterance \"I\'m very grateful to you for all you have done for me\", it performs the illocutionary of thanking 3\. ***Perlocutionary force***: the effect of a given illocutionary act on the hearer. Perlocutionary act (or just simply perlocution) carried out by a speaker making an utterance is the act of causing a certain effect on the hearer and others. Austin (1962-103) says that it is important to make a distinction between illocutionary and perlocutionary act because both of these speech acts are considered to do thing. Basically, an illocutionary act is a linguistic act performed in uttering certain word in a given context, while a perlocutionary act is a non-linguistic act performed a consequence of performing the locutionary and illocutionary acts. To make the explanation above easier to understand, the writer gives an example. If I say \"There is a hornet in your left ear\", the illocutionary act is to warn you that there is a hornet in your left ear. While the perlocutionary act is the hearer\'s reaction after hearing my utterance. It may cause the hearer panic, scream, and scratch wildly at your ear. Causing these emotions and actions of yours is the perlocution of my utterance, or the perlocutionary act perform by making that utterance. *Example:* *["It\`s cold in here."]* What type of sentence is it? What does it mean? What would be your response if someone said this utterance to you? **Classification Of Speech Acts** In 2000,. P.342, D. Allan Cruse purposes five macro classes of illocutionary acts. They are Declarative, Representative, Expressive, Directives, Commissives. ***1.Declarative*** Declarative is the speech act, which changes the state of affairs in the world. In declarative, what is being said is more global and everybody knows it. The speaker him or herself is in the higher position and has an authority in saying it. Wedding, christening, declaring, are some of the type of declarations. *Example*: Judge: I sentence you ten years in jail. (Sentence as a word that shown a declare or decision from judge to the accused). ***2. Representative*** Representative is the speech act, which describe states or events in the world. The speaker expresses belief that the propositional is true. Assertion, claim, report, description, and conclusion are the type of representatives. *Example:* This is a German car. ***3. Expressive*** Expressive is the speech act in which the speaker expresses feeling and attitude. It expresses only the speaker\'s psychology attitude toward some state of affair. Apology, complain, congratulate, joy, pain, likes are part of expressive. *Example:* I am sorry! (It is expression apologize to someone). ***4. Directives*** Directives is the speech act that has the function of getting the listener to do something. They express what the speaker wants. The speaker or commander usually is in the high position and the listener or the doer of the command is in the low position, like boss-employee, teacher-student, and parents-children. They are commands, orders, requests, and suggestions. *Example*: Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black. (Request something). ***5. Commissives*** Commissives is the speech act that commits yourself into doing something in the future. The speakers do the activity. It is more likely to commit yourself to what you say; otherwise, people will not respect you anymore. They are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, and threat. *Example:* I am going to get it right next time. (It is a promises or planning that must be achieve). **Lesson 5:** Review on Segmentals, Suprasegmentals, Modes of Communication, Types of Speech Delivery **Segmental and Suprasegmental** In speech, suprasegmental refers to a phonological property of more than one segment. Suprasegmental information applies to several different linguistic phenomena (such as pitch, duration, and loudness). Suprasegmentals are often regarded as the \'musical\' aspects of speech. The term suprasegmental (referring to functions that are "over" vowels and consonants) was coined by American structuralists in the 1940s. **Examples and observations** The effect of suprasegmentals is easy to illustrate. In talking to a cat, a dog, or a baby, you may adopt a particular set of suprasegmentals. Often, when doing this, people adopt a different voice quality, with high pitch register, and portrude their lips and adopt a tongue posture where the tongue body is high and in front in the mouth, making the speech sound \`softer'. Suprasegmentals are important for making all kinds of meanings, in particular speakers\` attitudes or stances to what they are saying (or the person they are saying it to), and in marking out how one\`s utterance relates to another (e.g. a continuation or a disjunction). Both the forms and functions of suprasegmentals are less tangible than those of consonants and vowels, and they often do not form discrete categories. (Richard Ogden, An Introduction to English Phonetics, 2009). **Suprasegmental features** a\. Vowels and consonants are considered small segments of the speech, which together form a syllable and make the utterance. b\. Common suprasegmental features are the stress, tone and duration in the syllable or word for a continuous speech sequence. Sometimes even harmony and nasalization are also included under this category. c\. Suprasegmental or prosodic features are often used in the context of speech to make it more meaningful and effective. d\. Without suprasegmental features superimposed on the segmental features, a continuous speech can also convey meaning but often loses the effectiveness of the message being conveyed. **Varieties** \- a very obvious suprasegmental is intonation. Less obvious is stress. Suprasegmental information is signaled in speech with variations in duration, pitch, and amplitude (loudness). information like this helps the hearer segment the signal into words, and can even affect lexical searches directly. We may use the term \`suprasegmental' to refer to a particular formalization in which a phonological feature can be analyzed. To give more concrete example, in some theoretical framework features such as nasality of voice may be treated suprasegmentally, as having extent beyond the limits of a single segment. Segmental language are the vowels and the consonants which combine to produce syllables, words and sentences. In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. Segmental phonemes of sign formally called "cheremer" are visual movement of hands, face and body. **Lesson 6:** Speaking Formats **Talk as interaction** This refers to what we normally mean by "conversation" and describes interaction which serves as primarily social function. When people meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small talk and chit chat, recount recent experiences and so on because they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfort zone of interaction with others. The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal depending on the circumstances and their nature has been well described by Brown and Yule 1983.. The main features of talk as interaction can be summarized as follows: -  has a primarily social function -  reflects role relationships -  reflects speaker\`s identity -  may be formal or casual -  uses conversational conversations -  reflects degrees of politeness -  employs many generic words -  uses conversational register -  is jointly constructed ***Example:*** *Two women are asking a third woman about her husband and how they first met.* ***Jessie:** Right. Right. And so when did you- actually meet him?* ***Brenda:** So we didn\'t actually meet until that night.* ***Judy**: Oh, hysterical. \[laughs\]* ***Brenda**: Well, I met him that night. We were all, we all went out to dinner. So I had champagne and strawberries at the airport.* ***Jessie**: And what was it like when you first saw him? Were you really \-\-- nervous?* ***Brenda**:\-\--Well, I was hanging out of a window watching him in his card, and I thought \`oh God what about this!\`\[laughs\]* ***Brenda**: And he\`d comb his hair and shaved his eyebrows - and -* ***Jessie**: Had you seen a photo of him?* ***Brenda:** Oh, yeah, I had photos of him, photos... and I\`d spoken to him on the phone.* ***Jessie**: Did you get on well straight away?* ***Brenda**: Uh, well sort of. I\`m a sort of nervy person when I first meet people, so it was sort of... you know... just nice to him.* ***Jessie**: \-\--\[laughs\]* The conversation is highly interactive and is in a collaborative conversational style. The listeners give constant feedback including laughter, to prompt the speaker to continue, and we see the examples of casual conversational register with "nervy" and "hanging out of the window". Other examples of talk as interaction include chatting to a school friend over coffee (casual conversation that serves to mark an ongoing friendship); a student chatting to his or her professor while waiting for an elevator (polite conversation that reflects unequal power between two participants); and telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience, and hearing her or him recount a similar experience he or she once had (sharing personal recounts). Some skills involved in using talk as interaction involve knowing how to do the following things: - opening and closing conversations - choosing topics - making small-talk - joking - recounting personal incidents and experiences - turn-taking - using adjacency-pairs - interrupting - reacting to others - using an appropriate style of speaking **Talk as transaction** This type of talk refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The message is the central focus here and making oneself understood clearly and accurately, rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each other. In transactions, \.... talk is associated with other activities. For example, students may be engaged in hand-on activities (e.g. in a science lesson\] to explore concepts associated with floating and sinking. In this type of spoken language students and teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way to understanding (Jones 1996, 14). The following example from a literature lesson illustrates this kind of talk in a classroom setting: \[T = Teacher S = Student\] *T: The other day we were talking about figures of speech. And we have already in the past talked about three kinds of figures of speech. Does anybody remember those three types? Mary?* *S: Personification, simile, and metaphor.* *T: Good. Let me write those on the board. Now can anybody tell me what personification is all about again? Juan?* *S: Making a non-living thing act like a person.* *T: Yes. OK. Good enough. Now what about simile? OK. Cecelia?* *S: Comparing two things by making use of the words \"like\" or \"as\".* *T: OK. Good. I\'ll write that on the board. The other one - metaphor.* *S: It\'s when we make a comparison between two things, but we compare them without using the words \"like\" or as* *T: All right. Good. So it\'s more direct than simile. Now we had a poem a few weeks ago about personification. Do you remember? Can you recall one line from that poem where a non-living things acts like a human person?* *S: \"The moon walks the night\"* *T: Good. The moon walks he night. Does the moon have feet to walk?* *S: No.* *T: No. So this is a figure of speech. All right Now our lesson today has something to do with metaphor. Now we\'re going to see what they have in common...* Other examples of talk as transaction are classroom group discussions and problem solving activities; discussing needed repairs to a computer with a technician; making a telephone call to obtain flight information; asking someone for directions on the street; buying something in a shop; and ordering food from a menu in a restaurant. There are two different types of talk as transaction. One is situations where the focus is on giving and receiving information and where the participants focus primarily on what is said or achieved (e.g. asking someone for directions). Accuracy may not be a priority as long as information is successfully communicated or understood. The second type are transactions which focus on obtaining goods or services, such as checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant. For example the following exchange was observed in a café: *Wait person: Hi, what it be today?* *Client: Just a cappuccino please. Low fat decaf if you have it.* *Wait person: Sure. Nothing to eat today?* *Client: No thanks.* *Wait person: Not a problem.* The main features of talk as transaction are: -  It has a primarily information focus. -  The main focus is the message and not the participants. -  Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood. - There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks as in the example from the classroom lesson above. -  There may be negotiation and direction. -  Linguistic accuracy is not always important. Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are: - explaining a need or intention - describing something - asking questioning - asking for clarification - confirming information - justifying an opinion - making suggestions - clarifying understanding - making comparisons - agreeing and disagreeing **Talk as performance** The third type of talk which can usefully be distinguished has been called talk as performance. **This refers to public talk, that is, talk which transmits information before an audience such as morning talks, public announcements, and speeches.** For example here is the opening of a fall welcome speech given by a university president: *Good morning. It\'s not my intention to deliver the customary state of the university address. There\'s good reason for that. It would seem to me to be presumptuous for someone who has been here not quite seven weeks to tell you what he thinks the state of the university is. You would all be better prepared for that kind of address than I am. However, I would like to offer you, based on my experience - which has been pretty intensive these almost seven weeks - some impressions that I have of this Institution, strengths, or some of them, and the challenges and opportunities that we face here. I also want to talk about how I see my role during the short time that I will be with you.* **Spoken texts of this kind according to Jones (1996,14),...often have identifiable generic structures and the language used is more predictable**....Because of less contextual support, the speaker must include all necessary information in the text - hence the importance of topic as well as textual knowledge. And while meaning is still important, there will be more emphasis on form and accuracy. **Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog, often follows a recognizable format (e.g. a speech of welcome) and is closer to written language than conversational language. Similarly it is often evaluated according to its effectiveness or impact on the listener, something which is unlikely to happen with talk as interaction or transaction.** Examples of talk as performance are giving a class report about a school trip; conducting a class debate; giving a speech of welcome; making a sales presentation; and giving a lecture. **The main features of talk as performance are:** -  There is a focus on both message and audience. -  It reflects predictable organization and sequencing. -  Form and accuracy is important. -  Language is more like written language. -  It is often monologic. **Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are:** - using an appropriate format - presenting information in an appropriate sequence - maintaining audience engagement - using correct pronunciation and grammar - creating an effect on the audience - using appropriate vocabulary - using appropriate opening and closing Teachers sometimes describe interesting differences between how learners manage these three different kinds of talk, as the following anecdotes illustrate. *I sometimes find with my students at a university in Hong Kong, that they are good at talk as transaction and performance but not with talk as interaction. For example the other day one of my students did an excellent class presentation in a course for computer science majors, and described very effectively a new piece of computer software. However a few days later when I met the same student going home on the subway and tried to engage her in social chat, she was at a complete loss for words.* *Another teacher describes a second language user with just the opposite difficulties. He is more comfortable with talk as interaction than as performance. One of my colleagues in my university in China is quite comfortable using talk socially. If we have lunch together with other native speakers he is quite comfortable joking and chatting in English. However recently we did a presentation together at a conference and his performance was very different. His pronunciation became much more "Chinese" and he made quite a few grammatical and other errors that I hadn\'t heard him make before.* **Implications for teaching** Three core issues need to be addressed in planning speaking activities for an oral English course. **The first is to determine what kinds of speaking skills the course will focus on.** Is it all three of the genres described above or will some receive greater attention than others? Informal needs analysis is the starting point here. Procedures for determining needs include observation of learners carrying out different kinds of communicative tasks, questionnaires, interviews, and diagnostic testing (e.g. Tsang and Wong 2002). **The second issue is identifying teaching strategies to "teach" (i.e. provide opportunities for learners to acquire) each kind of talk.** **The third issue involved in planning speaking activities is determining the expected level of performance on a speaking task and the criteria that will be used to assess student performance.** For any activity we use in class, whether it be one that seeks to develop proficiency in using talk as interaction, transaction or performance, we need to consider what successful completion of the activity involves. Is accuracy of pronunciation and grammar important? Is each participant expected to speak for about the same amount of time? Is it accepted if a speaker uses many long pauses or repetitions? **Teaching talk as interaction** Talk as interaction is perhaps the most difficult skill to teach since interactional talk is a very complex as well as subtle phenomena that takes place under the control of \"unspoken\" rules. In my experience these are best taught thought providing examples embedded in naturalistic dialogs that can serve to model features such as **opening and closing conversations, making small talk, recounting personal incidents and experiences, and reacting to what others say.** The rules for making small talk\" are that such interactions are often initiated by a comment concerning something in the immediate vicinity or that both participants have knowledge of, and that the comment will elicit agreement, since agreement is face- preserving and non-threatening. Hence safe topics must be chosen such as the weather, the traffic and so on. Students can be given models to practice, such as the following: *A. Nice weather today.* *B. Yes it is.* *A. I hope the weather is nice for the weekend.* *B. Me too.* *A. The buses to school are always so crowded.* *B. Yes they are.* Later they can be given situations to consider in which small talk might be appropriate (e.g. meeting someone at a movie, running into a friend in the cafeteria, waiting at a bus stop) and asked to think of small topic comment and responses.Giving feedback (back channelling) is another important aspect of talk as interaction and involves responding to a conversational partner with expressions such as "That\'s interesting", "yeah", "really", and so on, that indicate interest and a wish for the speaker to continue. To practice using back channelling in this way students can examine dialogs in which feedback expressions have been omitted. They can consider suitable ways of providing them, then practice them. For example they can consider different responses they could use on the following dialog: A. I\'m going to Hawaii for my next vacation. B. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ A. Yeah, my parents are taking me there as a graduation present. B. And what do you plan to do there? A. Well I guess I\'ll spend a lot of time on the beach. B. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ A. But I also want to do some snorkelling. B. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Another technique to practice the use of conversation starters and personal recounts involves giving conversation starters which students have to respond to by asking one or two follow-up questions. The teacher prepares a handout containing a list of conversational starters (the expressions one uses to start a conversation or to introduce a topic into a conversation such as, "I didn\'t sleep very well last night". "Look what I bought on Sunday. How do you like it?" "Did that thunderstorm last night wake you?") Students move around the dass. One student read out a starter from the list, and his or her partner responds by giving feedback or asking follow-up questions to keep the conversation going. Two simple activities I use to practice topic management are "in the hot seat" and "question time". In the first activity, a student sits on a chair in front of the class and makes a statement about something he or she did recently (e.g. "I saw a good movie on Sunday"). The other members of the class have to ask three or more questions about the topic which the student has to answer quickly. Then another student takes the hot seat. With the activity called question time, before students begin a lesson on a new theme, I prepare up to 15 questions related to the theme and put them on a handout. For example if the next unit is on the theme of sports, on the students handout there will be questions such as "What sports do you play?", "How often do you play sports?", "What sports are popular in your country?", "What sport have you never tried?" etc. I first ask students around the class to answer the questions quickly. Then students practice asking and answering the questions in pairs. **Teaching talks as transaction** Talk as transaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are a rich resource of group activities, information-gap activities and role plays that can provide a source for practicing how to use talk for sharing and obtaining information as well as for carrying out real-world transactions. These activities include ranking activities, values clarification activities, brainstorming, and simulations. Group discussion activities can be initiated by having students work in groups to prepare a short list of controversial statements for others to think about. Groups exchange statements and discuss them. For example: "Schools should do away with exams". "Vegetarianism is the only healthy life style". "The Olympic games are a waste of money". Role-play activities are another familiar technique for practicing real world transactions and typically involve the following sequence of activities: *Preparing*: reviewing vocabulary, real world knowledge related to the content and context of the role play (e.g. returning a faulty item to a store) *Modeling and eliciting*: demonstrating the stages that are typically involved in the transaction, eliciting suggestions for how each stage can be carried out, and teaching the functional language need for each stage *Practicing and reviewing*: students are assigned roles and practice a role play using cue cards or realia to provide language and other support. However an issue that arises in relation to practicing talk as transaction using different kinds of communicative tasks, is the level of linguistic accuracy that students achieve when carrying out these tasks. One assumption is that form will largely look after itself with incidental support from the teacher. From this perspective grammar has a mediating role, rather than serving as an end in itself (Thornbury 1998,112). It is a resource that the learner calls upon to make meaning but the focus is on task accomplishment rather than grammatical practice. "The teacher and the learner have a remarkable degree of flexibility, for they are presented with a set of general learning objectives and problem-solving tasks" (Kumaravadivelu 1991,99). As students carry out communicative tasks, the assumption is that they engage in the process of negotiation meaning, employing strategies such as comprehension checks, confirmation checks, and clarification requests. These are believed to lead to a gradual modification of their language output, which over time takes on more and more target-like forms. Despite these optimistic claims others have reported that communication tasks often develop fluency at the expense of accuracy. Higgs and Clifford (1982,78), for example, reporting experience with foreign language teaching programs in the US, observed: In programs that have as curricular goals an early emphasis on unstructured communication activities - minimizing, or excluding entirely, considerations of grammatical accuracy - it is possible in a fairly short time to provide students with a relatively large vocabulary and a high degree of fluency. These same data suggest that the premature immersion of a student into an unstructured or \"free\" conversational setting before certain linguistic structures are more or less in place is not done without cost.There appear to be a real danger of leading students too rapidly into the creative aspects of language use, in that if successful communication is encouraged and rewarded for its own sake, the effect seems to be one of rewarding at the same time the incorrect strategies seized upon in attempting to deal with the communication strategies presented. An example of the quality of language that is sometimes produces as students practice transactional functions of language is seen in the following ex1ample, observed during a role play task in a Spanish secondary school English lesson One student is playing the role of a doctor and the other a patient, and they are discussing a health problem. *S1: You how old?* *S2: 1\'m thirty-four.. thirty five.* *S1: Thirty five?* *S 2: Five.* *S 1: Problem?* *S2:1 have... a pain in my throat.* *S 1: \[In Spanish, What do you have?\]* *S 2: A pain.* *S 1: \[In Spanish. What\'s that?\]* *S2: \[In Spanish: A pain) A pain.* *S 1. Ah, pain.* *S2: Yes, and it makes problem to me when I...swallow.* *S1: When do you have...?* *S1: Since yesterday morning.* *S 1: \[In Spanish. No,I mean, where do you have the pain?\] It has a painin \...?* *S 2. In my throat.* *S1: Ah. Let it.. getting, er.. worse. It can be, er...very serious problem and you are, you will go to New York to operate, so... operation..the 7th, the 27th er May. And treatment, you can\'t eat, er, big meal.* *S2: Big meal. I er \... I don\'t know? Fish?* *S1: Fish, you have to eat, er, fish, for example.* This example shows how low-level students when carrying out communication tasks, often rely on a lexicalized system of communication that is heavily dependent upon on vocabulary and memorized chunks of language as well as both verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to get meaning across. Several ways can be used to address the issue of language accuracy when students are practicing transactional use of language: 1\. By *pre-teaching* *certain linguistic forms* that can be used while completing a task. 2\. By *reducing the complexity* of the task, e.g. by familiarizing students with the demands of the activity by showing them a similar activity on video or as a dialog. 3\. By *giving time* to plan the task. 4\. By repeated performance of the task. Willis \[1966) suggests using a cycle of activities with task-work using a sequence of activities in a lesson. These create interaction mediated by a task and then build language awareness and language development around task performance. She proposes the following sequence of activities: **Pre task activities** **Note**: T stands for teacher and Ss stands for student **Introduction to topic and task** -  T helps Ss to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for example,brainstorming ideas with the class, using pictures, mime or personal experience to introduce the topic. -  Ss may do a pre task, for example, topic-based odd-word-out games. T may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures. -  Ss can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task. -  Ss can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as this does not give away the solution to the problem). -  If the task is based on a text, Ss read a part of it. **The task cycle** **Task** -  The task is done by Ss (in pairs or groups) and gives Ss a chance to use whatever language they already have to express themselves and say whatever they want to say. This may be in response to reading a text or hearing a recording. -  T walks round and monitors, encouraging in a supportive way everyone\'s attempt at communication in the target language. -  T helps Ss to formulate what they want to say, but will not intervene to correct errors of form. -  The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence building, within the privacy of the small group. -  Success in achieving the goals of the tasks help Ss motivation. **Planning** Planning prepares for the next stage where Ss are asked to report briefly to the whole class how they did the task and what the outcome was. -  Ss draft and rehearse what they want to say or write. -  T goes round to advise students on language, suggesting phrases and helping Ss to polish and correct their language. If the reports are in writing, T can encourage pour editing and use of dictionaries. -  The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as appropriate for a public presentation. -  Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about specific language items. **Report** -  T asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone can compare findings, or begin a survey. (N.B: There must be purpose for others to listen). Sometimes only one or two groups report in full others comment and add extra points. The class may take notes. -  T chairs, comments on the content of their reports, rephrases perhaps, but gives no overt public correction. **Language focus** **Analysis**  T sets some language focused tasks, based on the texts stude3nt read or on the transcripts of they recordings they heard. Examples include the following: - Find words and phrases related top the topic or text. - Read the transcript, find words ending in \"s\" and say what the s means. - Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer to past time and which do not. - Underline and classify the questions in the transcript. -  T starts Ss off, then students continue, often in pairs. -  T goes round to help; Ss can ask individual questions -  In plenary, then reviews the analysis, possibly writing relevant language up on the board in list form: Ss may make notes. **Practice** -  T conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis work already on the board, or using examples from the text or transcript. Practice activities can include choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified; memory challenge games based on partially erased examples or using lists already on blackboard for progressive deletion; sentence completion (set by one team for another); matching the past tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject or objects they had in the text; and dictionary reference with words from text or transcript. **Teaching talk as performance** Teaching talk as performance requires a different teaching strategy. Jones (1996, 17) comments: Initially talk as performance needs to be prepared for and scaffolded in much the same way as written text, and many of the teaching strategies used to make understandings of written text accessible can be applied to the formal uses of spoken language. This involves providing examples or models of speeches, oral presentations, stories, etc. through video or audio recordings or written examples. These are then analyzed or deconstructed in order to understand how such texts work and what their linguistic and other organizational features are. Questions such as the following guide this process: -  What is the speaker\'s purpose? -  Who is the audience? -  What kind of information do the audience expect? -  How does the talk begin, develop, and end? What moves or stages are involved? -  Is any special language used? Students then work jointly on planning their own texts, which are then presented to the class. Feez and Joyce\'s approach to text-based instruction provides a good model of how talk as performance can be taught (1998,v). This approach involves: -  teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and written texts -  linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use -  designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts -  providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful communication through whole texts. Feez and Joyce (1998, 28-31) give the following description of how a text-based lesson proceeds. **Phase l: Building the context** In this stage students: -  Are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type being studied. -  Explore features of the general cultural context in which the text-type is used and the social purposes the text-type achieves Explore the immediate context of situation by investigating the register of a model text which has been selected on the basis of the course objectives and learner need. -  An exploration of register involves: - Building knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of the social activity in which the text is used, e.g. such as job seeking. - Understanding the roles and relationships of the people using the text and how these are established and maintained, e.g. the relationship between a job seeker and a prospective employer. - Understanding the channel of communication being used. e.g. using the telephone, speaking face-to-face with members of an interview panel. - **Context building activities include**: -  Presenting the context through pictures, audiovisual materials, realla, excursions, field-trips, guest speakers etc. -  Establishing the social purpose through discussions or surveys etc. -  Cross cultural activities such as comparing differences in the use of the text in two cultures. -  Comparing the model text with other texts of the same or contrasting type e.g comparing a job interview with a complex spoken exchange involving close friends, a work colleague or a stranger in a service encounter. **Phase 2: Modelling and deconstructing the text** In this stage students: -  Investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model -  Compare the model with other examples of the same text-type Feez and Joyce (1998,29) comment that "modelling and deconstruction are undertaken at both the whole text, clause and expression levels. It is at this stage that many traditional ESL language teaching activities come into their own". **Phase 3 Joint construction of the text** In this stage: -  Students begin to contribute to the construction of whole examples of the text type. -  The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control text-type independently. **Joint construction activities include:** -  teacher questioning, discussing and editing whole class onto board or over head projector -  skeleton texts -  jigsaw and information gap activities -  small group construction of tests -  dictogloss -  self-assessment and peer assessment activities **Phase 4: Independent construction of the text** In this stage: -  Students work independently with the text -  Learner performances are used for achievement assessment **Independent construction activities include:** - Listening tasks, e\... comprehension activities in response to live or - recorded material such as performing a task, sequencing pictures, numbering, ticking or underlining material on a worksheet, answering questions. - Listening and speaking tasks, e.g role plays, simulated or authentic dialogue. - Speaking tasks e.g. spoken presentation to class, community organization, workplace. -  Reading tasks e.g. comprehension activities in response to written material such as performing a task, s sequencing pictures, numbering, ticking or underlining material on a worksheet, answering questions. -  Writing tasks which demand that students draft and present whole texts. **Phase 5: Linking to related texts** In this stage students investigate how/what they have learned in this teaching/learning cycle can be related to: -  Other texts in the same or similar context. -  Future or past cycles of teaching and learning. **Activities which link the text-type to related texts include:** -  Comparing the use of the text-type across different fields -  Researching other text-types used in the same field -  Role-playing what happens if the same text-type is sued by people with different roles and relationships -  Comparing spleen and written modes of the same text-type -  Researching how a key language feature used in this text-type is used in other text-types. **Lesson 7:** Lesson Design in Teaching Speaking Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p.13). Do you know that? They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication. **The main issues are:** 1\. First Part Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued. 2\. Second Part English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. **How do we teach speaking?** -  A sample speaking activity -  Tense: Present Simple -  Think about an activity -  Teachers have to provide authentic practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. (Practice speaking in class). -  They have to help their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts and to do so using acceptable (that is, comprehensible) pronunciation. **Provide real-life situations** -  Teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. This can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task. **ACTIVITIES TO PRACTICE SPEAKING** 1\. Discussions -  After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussions group. 2\. Role Play -  The teacher gives information to learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. 3\. Simulations -  In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. Such activities motivate the students and increase the self confidence of hesitant students. 4\. Information Gap -  Students are supposed to be working in pairs. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language. 5\. Brainstorming -  The good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas. 6\. Storytelling -  They may create or imagine their own stories to tell their classmates. -  Storytelling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. 7\. Interviews -  Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. After interviews, each student can present his/her study to the class. 8\. Story Completion -  For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Students starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. 9\. Picture Narrating -  This activity is based on several sequential pictures. 10\. Reporting -  Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends what they found as the most interesting news. 11\. Picture Describing -  Students describe what is in the picture. -  It can also be used as springboard for a whole class-discussion. 12\. Speeches -  Teachers can ask their students to prepare a speech about one of the topics that were discussed in the class or they may also ask them to prepare a speech about a special event or occasion. - Delivering of the speech should be done in class. -  Try to involve as many students as possible. -  For this aim, practice different ways of student participation. -  Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe students. -  Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response. -  Ask eliciting questions such as "what do you mean? How did you reach that conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more. -  Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from expressing themselves. -  Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs. -  Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language. **Lesson 8:** Materials and Resources in Teaching Speaking Speaking is a productive skill. Theoretically, according to O'Gray (1996), it is a mental process. This means that is a psychological process by which speakers put a mental process by which speaker puts a mental concept into some linguistic form such as words, phrases, and sentences used to convey a message to a listener. *Why should we teach speaking skills in the classroom?* 1\. Motivation  Many students equate being able to speak a language as knowing the language and therefore view learning the language as learning how to speak and the language. 2\. Speaking is fundamental to human communication  In our daily lives, most of us speak more than we write, yet many English teachers still spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almost ignoring speaking and listening skills. **Principle for teaching speaking skills** 1\. Focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on your objectives Accuracy- it is the extent to which students' speech matches what people actually say when they use the target language. Fluency- it is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc. 2\. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques  Try at all times to appeal to students' ultimate goals and interests to their need for knowledge, status, achieving competence and autonomy, and for "being all that they can be". 3\. Provide appropriate feedback and correction  In most EFL situations, students are totally dependent on the teacher for useful linguistic feedback. In an ESL situation, they may get such feedback out "there" beyond the classroom but even then, you are in a position to be of great benefit. It is important that you take advantage of your knowledge of English to inject the kind of corrective feedback that is appropriate for the moment. 4\. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening  Many interactive techniques that involve speaking will also of course include listening. Don't lose out on opportunities to integrate these two skills. As you perhaps focus on speaking goals, listening goals may naturally coincide and the two skills can reinforce each other. Skills in producing language are often initiated through comprehension. **Individual Practice: Oral Dialog Journal**  Written dialogue journals where students record thoughts, ideas, and/or reactions and the teacher reads and responds with written comments **Other Interactive Techniques**  Many other tasks and techniques can be applied to the teaching conversation. They are almost impossible to categorize. **Oral Communication Skills in Pedagogical Research** 1\. Teaching pronunciation  How to teach, yet understanding that accents will remain. 2\. Accuracy and Fluency  How to address these two elements of language usage and language use. 3\. Affective factors  Creating a climate that encourages students to speak and to accept imperfections as part of the process. 4\. Interaction effects  Speaking is a collaborative activity in which students must learn to negotiate. 5\. The growth of spoken corpora  One of the key development in teaching our production. 6\. Genres of spoken language  How to teach variations of oral interaction. **Types of spoken language** 1\. Monologue  A prolonged talk or discourse by a single speaker, especially one dominating or monopolizing a conversation. 2\. Dialogue  Conversation between two or more persons. **Effective materials will allow students to**: Share and process information, Control meanings, choose how to participate, utilize effectivity, utilize individual knowledge, become aware of ellipsis on spoken language, move beyond the initiation-respond-feedback model. How effective are your materials? - Linguistic support - Content based and affective support - Skills support - Diversity & flexibility - Utilizing research needs **Lesson 9:** Performance-Based Assessment in Teaching Speaking **Teaching talk as performance requires a different teaching strategy.** Jones (1996:17) comments that: Initially, **talk as performance needs to be prepared for and scaffolded** in much the same way as written text, and many of the teaching strategies used to make understandings of written text accessible can be applied to the formal uses of spoken language. This approach involves **providing examples or models of speeches, oral presentations, stories, etc., through video or audio recordings or written examples.** These are then analyzed, or "deconstructed," to understand how such texts work and what their linguistic and other organizational features are. Questions such as the following guide this process: - What is the speaker's purpose? - Who is the audience? - What kind of information does the audience expect? - How does the talk begin, develop, and end? What moves or stages are involved? - Is any special language used? **Students then work jointly on planning their own texts, which are then presented to the class. (ex. Speech, Declamations, Spoken poetry, etc.)** Feez and Joyce's approach to text-based instruction provides a good model for teaching talk as performance (1998:v). This approach involves: - Teaching explicitly(broader) about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and written texts - Linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use. (Linking spoken and written texts to their cultural context means understanding how the way we speak and write is influenced by the culture we live in. For example, the words and phrases we use, the way we tell stories, and even the topics we choose to talk about or write about are shaped by our cultural background. This connection helps us communicate more effectively because it takes into account the shared experiences, values, and norms of the people we are communicating with. By recognizing these cultural influences, we can better understand and connect with others in meaningful ways.) - Designing units of work that focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts. (Designing units of work that focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts means creating lessons that help students understand and use complete pieces of writing or speech. Instead of just learning individual words or sentences, students practice with entire stories, articles, or conversations. This approach helps them see how language works in real-life situations, making it easier to communicate effectively. By working with whole texts, students can improve their reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills all at once, and understand how different parts of language fit together.) - Providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful communication through whole texts. (Providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful communication through whole texts means helping them learn by working with complete pieces of writing or speech, like stories or conversations. Teachers give students step-by-step support and feedback as they practice using language in real-life contexts. This approach helps students understand how to use language naturally and effectively, making it easier for them to communicate their ideas and understand others. By practicing with whole texts, students can improve their overall language skills in a meaningful and practical way.) Feez and Joyce (1998: 28--31) give the following five-phase description of how a text-based lesson proceeds: Phase 1: Building the context Students are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text-type. (Introducing students to the social context of an authentic model of the text-type means showing them how a real-life example of a particular kind of text fits into the society where it is used. For instance, if students are learning about news articles, they would look at actual news stories and understand how they are written to inform the public, reflect societal issues, and follow certain conventions. This helps students see the purpose and audience of the text, making it easier for them to understand and create similar texts themselves. By connecting the text to its real-world use, students can better grasp its meaning and relevance.) Phase 2: Modelling and deconstructing the text Students investigate the model's structure and language, comparing it to other examples. (When students investigate the model's structure and language, they look closely at how a particular text is organized and the words it uses. They then compare this text to other similar texts to see what they have in common and what is different. This helps students understand the typical features of that type of text and how to use them in their own writing or speaking. By examining and comparing different examples, students can learn the best ways to structure their ideas and choose the right words for different situations.) Phase 3: Joint construction of the text Students begin to contribute to the construction of new examples of the text-type, with decreasing teacher involvement. (When students start to create new examples of a certain type of text, they do it with less and less help from the teacher. At first, the teacher might guide them a lot, showing them how to structure their writing or speech. But as students get more comfortable and skilled, the teacher steps back and lets them take more control. This process helps students become more independent and confident in using the language on their own. They learn by doing, gradually taking over the task until they can do it by themselves.) Phase 4: Independent construction of the text Students work independently with the text on tasks such as role plays, presentations, and writing tasks. (When students work independently with texts, they do activities like role plays, presentations, and writing tasks on their own. This means they use what they\'ve learned to create and perform without much help from the teacher. For example, they might act out a scene from a story, give a talk about a topic, or write an essay. Doing these tasks by themselves helps them practice and improve their language skills, making them more confident and capable in using the language in real-life situations.) Phase 5: Linking to related texts Students investigate how what they've learned can be related to other texts in similar contexts, and other cycles of teaching. (When students investigate how what they've learned can be related to other texts in similar contexts, they look at how the skills and knowledge they gained from one text can be applied to other texts that are alike. For example, if they learned how to write a news article, they might see how those same skills can help them write a blog post or a report. They also think about how these skills fit into different lessons or subjects they are studying. This helps them see the connections between different types of texts and understand how to use what they've learned in various situations. **Lesson 10:** Feed backing in Assessing Speaking Feedback is an information about reactions to a product, a person\'s performance of a task, etc. which is used as a basis for improvement. Feedback is information a student receives after they have completed a piece of work, provides information to students and teachers about learning.It helps to reduce the gap between the student's current level of understanding and/or performance and a desired goal. **BENEFITS OF GIVING FEEDBACK** Corrects errors Develops understanding through explanation Generates more learning by suggesting further specific study tasks Promotes the development of generic skills Encourages reflection and awareness of learning processes involved Encourages students to continue studying **How to give Feedback?** 1\. [Give feedback with a positive approach. ] -Monitor your facial expressions, body language and tone of voice. -Always give more compliments than criticism. For example, \"You pronounced those hard words really well.\" 2\. [Point out errors and give the correct forms.]Techniques: A. Ask a student to repeat or explain something youdon\'t understand.B. To correct a mistake indirectly, repeat the utterance without the errors.C. Repeat the student\'s exact statement as a question so she sees the mistake: \"I goed?\"D. Ask for the correct form more directly: \"Do you know the irregular past of this verb?" 3\. [Use a scoring chart or rubric.] -Record points or grades on a chart divided into topics such as pronunciation, fluency,grammar, vocabulary and content. -Always write specific comments, many of them positive. For example, \"Good pronunciation.\" 4\. [Search for specific aspects to praise or critique.] -Avoid general statements. -For example, during oral presentation, avoid giving a generic \"great job!\" if she clearly did not take it seriously. -If you tell her, sympathetically, \"Haley, I think you can do much better than that. I look forward to your next presentation,\" she actually might strive for more the next opportunity. 5\. [Don\'t compare the student with other students.] This can build jealousy. Example: \" Jane is always punctual\". 6\. [Give feedback on a student's behaviour not about the students themselves.] Give accurate descriptions of behaviour not comments about the student\'s qualities and worth as an individual. Multiple Choice 1\. Which of the following best describes the nature and purpose of speaking? a\) It is only for expressing emotions. b\) It involves both encoding and decoding messages. c\) It is primarily about listening. d\) It only focuses on pronunciation. Answer: *b) It involves both encoding and decoding messages.* 2\. The stage in the speaking process where vocal cords vibrate to produce sound is known as: a\) Breathing b\) Phonation c\) Resonation d\) Articulation Answer: *b) Phonation* 3\. What is a key characteristic of formal speech style? a\) It is used among close friends. b\) It includes technical vocabulary and is used in professional settings. c\) It involves casual language and slang. d\) It is used in private conversations. Answer: *b) It includes technical vocabulary and is used in professional settings.* 4\. Austin\'s speech act theory focuses on: a\) The grammatical correctness of speech. b\) The functions and effects of utterances in communication. c\) The history of language. d\) The structure of written documents. Answer: *b) The functions and effects of utterances in communication.* 5\. Suprasegmental features in speech include: a\) Phonemes b\) Stress, tone, and pitch c\) Vocabulary and syntax d\) Sentence structure Answer: *b) Stress, tone, and pitch* 6\. The term used to describe a speech act where the speaker commits to a future action is: a\) Declarative b\) Representative c\) Expressive d\) Commissive Answer: *d) Commissive* 7\. The type of speech act that changes the state of affairs in the world is: a\) Representative b\) Declarative c\) Directive d\) Expressive Answer: *b) Declarative* 8\. Which style of speaking is characterized by its use in legal and ceremonial contexts? a\) Intimate b\) Casual c\) Frozen d\) Consultative Answer: *c) Frozen* 9\. In the process of speaking, which stage is concerned with amplifying and modifying the voice? a\) Breathing b\) Phonation c\) Resonation d\) Articulation Answer: *c) Resonation* 10\. When teaching speaking, which approach combines language input, structured output, and communicative output? a\) Task-based learning b\) Balanced activities approach c\) Immersive approach d\) Grammar-focused approach Answer: *b) Balanced activities approach* Identification 11\. Identify the term for the stage where the sound produced is modified by the vocal tract\'s cavities. Answer: *Resonation* 12\. The stage of speaking where air is forced through the vocal cords to produce sound is called: Answer: *Phonation* 13\. Define the term used to describe the act of speaking to convince or persuade others. Answer: *Commissive* 14\. This type of speech act involves the speaker's psychological state or attitude towards something. Answer: *Expressive* 15\. Name the speech style used in everyday conversations among friends. Answer: *Casual* 16\. Identify the type of feedback that focuses on providing suggestions for improvement after a speaking activity. Answer: *Formative feedback* 17\. This speech act aims to get the listener to perform a specific action. Answer: *Directive* 18\. The stage of the speaking process that involves the movement of lips, teeth, and tongue to form sounds is: Answer: *Articulation* 19\. Suprasegmental features include all of the following EXCEPT: a\) Intonation b\) Stress c\) Pitch d\) Consonants Answer: *d) Consonants* 20\. Define the term for feedback that is provided at the end of a term or course to evaluate overall performance. Answer: *Summative feedback* 1\. What are the essential functions of communication? a\. To entertain only b\. To persuade only c\. To inform, persuade, express emotions, and entertain d\. To inform and persuade only 2\. What is articulation in speaking? a\. Volume and pitch b\. Fluency c\. The production of sounds d\. The use of language registers 3\. What is a \'frozen\' style of communication? a\. Highly formal style used in legal documents or ceremonies b\. Informal style used among friends c\. Aggressive style d\. Passive style 4\. What is the difference between illocutionary and perlocutionary acts? a\. Illocutionary refers to the effect on the listener, and perlocutionary refers to the intended meaning. b\. Illocutionary refers to the intended meaning, and perlocutionary refers to the effect on the listener. c\. Illocutionary refers to the actual utterance, and perlocutionary refers to the intended meaning. d\. Illocutionary refers to the intended meaning, and perlocutionary refers to the actual utterance. 5\. What are suprasegmentals in speech? a\. Basic sound units of language b\. Prosodic features like intonation, stress, and rhythm c\. Modes of communication d\. Types of speech delivery 6\. What are the three speaking formats? a\. Interaction, transaction, and performance b\. Formal, informal, and neutral c\. Aggressive, passive, and assertive d\. Verbal, non-verbal, and written 7\. What is the role of constructive criticism in performance-based assessment? a\. To praise students b\. To provide positive feedback only c\. To identify areas for improvement d\. To criticize students\' mistakes 8\. What is the importance of understanding speech styles and registers? a\. To develop fluency in speaking b\. To understand the basic sound units of language c\. To achieve the intended outcomes of communication d\. To improve speaking mechanics 9\. What is the role of materials and resources in teaching speaking? a\. To provide necessary tools and content for teaching and learning speaking. b\. To assess students\' speaking skills. c\. To design effective lessons for teaching speaking. d\. To provide feedback to students. 10\. What are the different types of speech delivery? a\. Interaction, transaction, and performance b\. Verbal, non-verbal, and written c\. Impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized d\. Formal, informal, and neutral 11\. What is the purpose of Austin and Searle's Speech Acts theory? a\. To understand the production of sounds in speech b\. To categorize different speech styles and registers c\. To break down speech into three acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary d\. To evaluate students\' speaking skills in practical situations 12\. How does understanding segmentals and suprasegmentals add to effective speaking techniques? a\. By improving fluency in speaking b\. By providing necessary tools and content for teaching and learning speaking c\. By helping add meaning and emotion to speech d\. By understanding the mechanics of speaking 13\. What is the importance of assessing students\' speaking skills in real-world situations? a\. To provide feedback to students b\. To evaluate the effectiveness of teaching c\. To ensure students can apply what they\'ve learned d\. To design effective lessons for teaching speaking 14\. What are the different approaches to speech? a\. Aggressive, passive, and assertive b\. Impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized c\. Formal, informal, and neutral d\. Interaction, transaction, and performance 15\. Suprasegmental features include all of the following EXCEPT: a\) Intonation b\) Stress c\) Pitch d\) Consonants Answers: 1\. c. To inform, persuade, express emotions, and entertain 2\. c. The production of sounds 3\. a. Highly formal style used in legal documents or ceremonies 4\. b. Illocutionary refers to the intended meaning, and perlocutionary refers to the effect on the listener. 5\. b. Prosodic features like intonation, stress, and rhythm 6\. a. Interaction, transaction, and performance 7\. c. To identify areas for improvement 8\. c. To achieve the intended outcomes of communication 9\. a. To provide necessary tools and content for teaching and learning speaking. 10\. c. Impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized 11\. c. To break down speech into three acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary 12\. c. By helping add meaning and emotion to speech 13\. c. To ensure students can apply what they\'ve learned 14\. a. Aggressive, passive, and assertive 15\. d. Consonants