SOCY Midterm Notes PDF

MIDTERM REVIEW VIDEO - Sociology: the systematic study of social behaviour and phenomena in human societies. - Macrosociology: concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. - Microsociology: stresses the study of small groups and the analysis of our everyday...

MIDTERM REVIEW VIDEO - Sociology: the systematic study of social behaviour and phenomena in human societies. - Macrosociology: concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. - Microsociology: stresses the study of small groups and the analysis of our everyday experiences and interactions. - The sociological imagination (Mills) - An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society - The ability to view our society as an outsider might, rather than relying only on our individual perspective, which is shaped by our cultural biases. - Three generally accepted sociological perspectives - Functionalism (Macro): society is made up of several interdependent parts, which function exactly as they should to maintain social order. - Conflict theory (Macro): society is made up of unequal groups where the privileged exploit the underprivileged. The struggle for resources, status, and power creates conflict which leads to social change. - Symbolic interactionism (Micro): society is made up of everyday social interactions, such interactions shape individuals, identities, and share the meaning of the social world. - Emile Durkheim: the fiction of the division of labours is to increase social solidarity - Functionalism: emphasizes that society's parts are necessarily structured to maintain its stability. Society is viewed as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. - Karl Marx: class struggle is the mechanism that moves history forward. Classes are the base of all society. The state and social institutions are superstructures. - Max Weber: Sees history as dependent on power and argues that power struggle is multidimensional. - Conflict theory: society is made up of unequal groups where the most privileged exploit the underprivileged. The struggle for resources, status, and power creates conflict, which leads to social change. - Aldon Morris who critiques the trinity, as seen above. They were: - Complicit in racist discourse - Assumed universal white subjectivity - Did not analyze subaltern experience and agency - Did not use intersectional frameworks - Ignored structured patterns of domination - Lacked transnational perspectives - Feminist theory: key theorists are Joan Alway, Mclung, and Smith. Society is characterized by gender inequality and male dominance. Solutions, abolish patriarchy and establish gender equality. It is both macro and micro sociology. Criticism, relies heavily on subjective experience. - Reasons that sociology has been hesitant to feminist theory - Radical challenge it poses to sociology - The unfamiliar nature of its “voice” - Its lack of grounding in the major sociological paradigms - Its “questionable” status as a theory - Standpoint theory: advocates that marginalized people have an epistemologically privileged standpoint. - Important tools drawn from anti-racist perspectives - The colour line (Dubois) - The veil and double consciousness (Dubois) - Black feminist thought (Collins) - The outsider within (Collins) - 4 tenets that are key for a sociological adaption of critical race theory - Racism as a permanent feature of American society - Racism working through intersecting structures of domination - Racism formation through white supremacy - Narrative storytelling, lived experience, resistance - Intersectionality (as an analytical tool) - Allows us to analyze systems of oppression - Emphasizes that such systems are interlocking - Centralized lived experience - Intersectionality -> Kimberle Crenshaw (black women) - Decolonial, anti-imperialist, and anti-orientalist perspectives - Western knowledge production is based on a history of imperialism and colonialism - “producing knowledge” (including sociological knowledge), has harmed marginalized and especially Indigenous populations - We should think critically about taken-for-granted concepts like time and space - Orientalism has been used as a tool to divide the world into two unequal halves - Power, violence, and control are ultimately about anxiety, fear and entitlement - Total overview - Classical perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism. - Interventions - Gender as an organizing principle of social life - Anti-racist perspectives - Critical race theory - Intersectionality - Decolonial perspectives - Anti-orientalist perspectives - Anti-imperialist perspectives MY MIDTERM PREP Week 1, L1 The document provides an overview of sociology, focusing on its definition, key components, classical perspectives, and the promise it holds for understanding social structures and promoting social change. Definition of Sociology: Sociology is defined as the systematic study of social behaviour and phenomena in human societies. It encompasses the study of individuals, society, and the consequences of differences among groups. Key Components: The essential elements of sociology include systematic study, the individual, society, and the consequences of differences among groups. Sociology is classified as a social science, which is distinguished from natural sciences by its focus on the social features of humans. Sociology vs. Common Sense: The document emphasizes that sociologists do not accept commonly held beliefs as facts without scrutiny. Instead, findings are rigorously tested, analyzed, and evaluated alongside sociological theory. Classical Perspectives: The document outlines three classical sociological perspectives: Functionalism: Views society as a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain social order. Conflict Theory: Focuses on the inequalities in society, where privileged groups exploit underprivileged ones, leading to conflict and social change. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how everyday social interactions shape individuals, identities, and shared meanings in the social world. Forefathers of Sociology: The document lists key figures in the development of sociology: Auguste Comte: Known as the "founder" of sociology and credited with coining the term 16. Emile Durkheim: Recognized for institutionalizing sociology and known as the forefather of functionalism.  Karl Marx: Acknowledged as the forefather of conflict theory, influencing many Marxist thinkers. Max Weber: Seen as a multifaceted thinker using comparative historical sociology and recognized for his interpretive approach. The "Trinity" on Modernity: The document introduces the views of Durkheim, Marx, and Weber on modernity: 1. Durkheim linked modernity to a specialized division of labour. 2. Marx attributed modernity to class conflict. 3. Weber associated modernity with the Protestant ethic. Sociological Imagination: C. Wright Mills described the sociological imagination as the awareness of the relationship between personal experiences and the wider society, enabling individuals to view society from an outsider’s perspective. The Promise of Sociology: Sociology's promise lies in its ability to connect personal biographies with historical and social structures, addressing private troubles and public issues. Contemporary Issues in Sociology: The document raises critical questions for contemporary sociology, such as the reproduction of social inequalities, the experiences of oppressed groups, and how sociology can foster social change and inclusivity. Goals for the Class: The document outlines goals for the sociology class, emphasizing an inclusive, critical, interdisciplinary, and public approach to sociology. It highlights the importance of representation, agency, intersectionality, social justice, and the need for community engagement. In summary, the document serves as an introductory guide to sociology, exploring its foundational concepts, key thinkers, and the relevance of sociological inquiry in understanding and addressing societal issues. Week 2, L1 The document outlines a lecture focused on Emile Durkheim and his contributions to functionalism, a foundational perspective in sociology. 1. Introduction to Emile Durkheim: ○ Born in France in 1858, of Jewish descent but lived a secular life. He is recognized as a key figure in establishing sociology as a discipline and is often referred to as the "forefather" of functionalism. Durkheim passed away in 1917 due to a stroke. 2. Major Works: ○ Durkheim's noteworthy publications include "The Division of Labour in Society" (1893), "The Rules of Sociological Method" (1895), "Suicide" (1897), and "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912). 3. Sociological Analysis: ○ Durkheim posited that sociology focuses on social facts, which he defined as socially determined ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are objective, observable, and external to individuals. He emphasized the importance of empiricism over theorization when observing social facts, advocating for the suspension of biases and preconceptions. 4. Causality in Social Science: ○ Durkheim distinguished between correlation and causation, stressing that social sciences must explain causal mechanisms rather than simply observing correlations. He introduced a causal logic framework, where X represents an independent variable and Y a dependent variable, illustrating how one can lead to the other. 5. Example of Suicide: ○ Durkheim's study of suicide serves as a pivotal example of his analytical approach. He examined suicide as a phenomenon influenced by social integration and order, proposing that these social factors significantly affect individual behaviour.  6. Social Cohesion and the Division of Labour: ○ Durkheim's central argument was that the division of labour serves to enhance social solidarity. He differentiated between two types of solidarity: mechanical solidarity, characterized by sameness and minimal division of labour, and organic solidarity, marked by a complex division of labour and mutual interdependence. 7. Community Types: ○ He further described two types of communities: Gemeinschaft (close-knit communities with strong personal bonds) and Gesellschaft (larger, impersonal communities with less commitment). 8. Functionalism Overview: ○ The document explains functionalism as a perspective that views society as a network of interconnected parts, each contributing to the overall stability of the system. It introduces concepts such as manifest functions (intended consequences) and latent functions (unintended consequences). 9. Functionalism vs. Other Theories: ○ The lecture notes the criticisms of functionalism, including its tendency to support the status quo and overlook social inequalities. It contrasts functionalism with other sociological perspectives like conflict theory and interactionism. 10. Application of Functionalism: ○ The document concludes by posing questions about how functionalists would view various social institutions, such as education, crime, families, religion, and government, inviting further reflection on the practical implications of functionalist theory. Overall, the lecture encapsulates Durkheim's significant contributions to sociology, particularly through his functionalist lens, emphasizing the interplay between individual actions and broader social structures. Week 2, L2 Introduction to Karl Marx: Born: Prussia, 1818. Raised in a middle-class family; his father was a lawyer, influencing Marx to initially study law. Career: Marx transitioned to journalism and political activism, becoming an editor for an opposition newspaper in Cologne. Exile: Due to his political writings, Marx was exiled from Paris and Brussels, eventually settling in London where he spent the rest of his life. He died in 1883. Influence: Marx is known for developing the foundations of conflict theory and materialist conception of history, which became key components of modern sociology. Major Works: On the Jewish Question (1843) The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (Paris Manuscripts) Theses on Feuerbach (1845) The German Ideology (1846, co-written with Engels) The Communist Manifesto (1848, co-written with Engels) Das Kapital (1867) Sociological Analysis: Materialist Conception of History: Marx argued that the economic base (how goods are produced) shapes society’s institutions, ideas, and social structure (the superstructure). ○ Unlike idealists, Marx believed that material conditions precede consciousness—meaning our ideas and ideologies are formed by the real, lived economic conditions. ○ He criticized philosophers like the Young Hegelians for focusing on ideas instead of addressing the real-world conditions of production and class relations. Causality in Social Science: Marx’s framework connects economic structure (base) and social institutions (superstructure). He saw class struggle—conflict between the ruling and working classes—as the key mechanism driving historical change. The mode of production in any society consists of: ○ Forces of production: technology, labour, and materials. ○ Relations of production: social structures governing production, like ownership and labour organization. ○ Progression: Society evolves through historical stages: Tribalism → Feudalism → Capitalism → Socialism → Communism. Example of Class Struggle: Marx believed that history is driven by class conflict, primarily between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). He stated that the ruling class not only controls material resources but also the intellectual forces of society, shaping the dominant ideas of each era to maintain their power. Social Change and Class Conflict: Marx proposed that societal change occurs through revolution, spurred by the conflict between opposing classes. For instance, the rise of capitalism emerged from the struggles within feudalism, and Marx predicted that socialism would emerge from the contradictions of capitalism. Conflict Theory Overview: Conflict theory views society as composed of groups with unequal power, leading to exploitation and inequality. Key Idea: Social order is maintained by domination and power, not consensus. The ruling class uses its control over resources to suppress lower classes. This stands in contrast to functionalism, which sees society as a stable, ordered system where all parts work together to maintain balance. Conflict Theory vs. Functionalism: Functionalism (Durkheim, Parsons, Merton): Views society as balanced and emphasizes the interdependence of institutions. It focuses on social stability. Conflict Theory (Marx, Weber, Dahrendorf): Focuses on the struggles over resources, power, and inequality. It sees social change as inevitable and rooted in conflict. Criticisms of Functionalism: Functionalism is often criticized for ignoring inequality and upholding the status quo, while conflict theory is critiqued for overlooking social cohesion and cooperation. Relevance of Marx’s Ideas Today: Marx’s Correct Insights: While some of Marx’s predictions—such as the collapse of capitalism and the role of class as the sole source of inequality—did not materialize as expected, his analysis of inequality, agency, and resistance remains relevant. Marx was accurate in his prediction that capitalism would continue to generate inequality, and his ideas about the role of ideology and power in maintaining social structures are still widely influential. Application of Conflict Theory: The lecture invites students to reflect on how conflict theory would interpret social institutions like the government, education, and the economy, focusing on how these institutions perpetuate power imbalances and inequality. Conclusion: The lecture on Marx and conflict theory emphasizes that society is shaped by material conditions and class struggles, which drive social change. Marx’s critique of capitalism and his theories about power and inequality continue to be relevant today, despite some of his incorrect predictions about the collapse of capitalism. Week 3, L1 Introduction to Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective focusing on micro-level social interactions and how these interactions shape society and individual identities. It explores how shared meanings, created through social interaction, form the foundation of human behaviour and social structures. The Self: Definition: The self is a distinct identity that sets individuals apart from others and is shaped through social interaction. Sigmund Freud: Viewed the self as a social product, with personality being influenced by interactions, especially with one’s parents. He believed that natural instincts are often in conflict with societal expectations. Psychological Approaches to the Self: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development: ○ Children develop cognitive abilities in four stages: i. Sensorimotor ii. Preoperational iii. Concrete operational iv. Formal operational ○ Social interaction is crucial for cognitive development. Charles Cooley’s "Looking-Glass Self": ○ The self emerges through social interaction, shaped by three key phases: i. Imagining how others see us. ii. Imagining how others evaluate us. iii. Developing our self-identity based on these perceptions. George Herbert Mead: ○ Distinguished between the "I" (the acting self) and the "Me" (the socialized self that reflects on actions). ○ The "generalized other" refers to society’s attitudes, norms, and expectations, which individuals use to guide their behaviour.  ○ Mead outlined three stages in the development of self: i. Preparatory stage: Imitating those around them. ii. Play stage: Pretending to be other people. iii. Game stage: Understanding their own role and the roles of others in a broader social context. Sociological Approaches to the Self: Erving Goffman: Developed the Dramaturgical Approach to social interaction. ○ Individuals are like actors on a stage, performing roles based on social expectations. ○ Social interactions are divided into: Front stage: Public performances shaped by societal norms. Backstage: Private moments where individuals reveal their true selves. ○ Goffman emphasized impression management: how individuals alter their behaviour to create favourable impressions in the eyes of others. ○ Social interaction involves navigating social scripts, and individuals engage in face work to avoid public embarrassment and maintain social order. Symbolic Interactionism: Key Theorists and Concepts: Herbert Blumer: Coined the term symbolic interactionism and established three fundamental premises: ○ Humans act toward things based on the meanings they ascribe to them. ○ These meanings are created through social interaction. ○ Individuals modify meanings through an interpretative process. Key Theorists: ○ Blumer, Mead, Cooley, Goffman: They emphasized that identity and society are shaped through small-scale social interactions. Symbolic Interactionism vs. Other Perspectives: Macrosociology: Focuses on large-scale social phenomena, such as institutions and societal systems (e.g., functionalism and conflict theory). Microsociology: Symbolic interactionism operates at this level, concentrating on small groups and everyday social experiences.  Functionalism: Views society as a stable system where parts work together for equilibrium. Conflict Theory: Focuses on the imbalance of power and resources, viewing social change as inevitable due to conflict. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines society through the lens of everyday interactions, stressing the importance of shared meanings in creating social order. Critiques of Symbolic Interactionism: It has been criticized for focusing too narrowly on small-scale interactions, potentially neglecting broader social structures like class, culture, and institutional power. Social structure refers to the framework of society, while agency is the ability of individuals to act independently and make free choices. Social Constructionism: Related to symbolic interactionism, social constructionism suggests that reality is constructed by individuals who interpret the social world around them. Institutions like the media, research bodies, and governments play a role in constructing social phenomena. Labelling Theory: This theory suggests that behaviour or groups are seen as deviant or problematic based on how they are labelled by society. Changing these labels can alter societal perceptions. Application of Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic interactionism helps explain how social norms are formed and maintained through repeated interactions. It also sheds light on social inequality, as individuals' interactions often reflect broader systems of power and hierarchy. The lecture concludes by emphasizing the importance of understanding society through the lens of individual and small-group interactions, and how these shape social order and identity. Week 3, L2 Max Weber Overview Born: in 1864, Prussia, into a large, wealthy family. Education & Career: Studied law and history, eventually becoming a professor of political economy. Married Marianne Weber, an intellectual and women's rights advocate. Health: Experienced a severe nervous breakdown in 1897, which led to a hiatus from his work. Post-recovery, he resumed with prolific publications, shaping his legacy. Death: Passed away in 1920 from the flu during the pandemic. Major Works The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism ○ Introduces the concept of the iron cage, which refers to the modern capitalist system's rational, efficient, yet constraining nature. Economy and Society ○ A foundational text for sociology, outlining Weber's theories of social action and authority. The Nature of Social Action ○ A framework for understanding different motivations behind human actions. The Types of Legitimate Domination ○ An analysis of different forms of authority in society. Classes, Status Groups, and Parties ○ A multidimensional approach to social stratification. Politics as a Vocation & Science as a Vocation ○ Explores the ethical dimensions of political and scientific work, emphasizing responsibility and commitment. Weber's Definition of Sociology Sociology: "A science concerning itself with the interpretive understanding of social action [verstehen] and the causal explanation of its course and consequences" (from Economy and Society).  Interpretive Understanding (Verstehen): Emphasizes empathetic insight into individuals' actions by considering their subjective meaning and purpose. Causal Explanation: Goes beyond mere observation of behaviour by investigating the underlying reasons and consequences of social actions. Positivism vs. Interpretivism Positivism (e.g., Comte, Durkheim): ○ Views society through objective, measurable social facts. ○ Seeks truth through quantifiable data and emphasizes scientific rigour. Interpretivism (Weber): ○ Advocates for understanding social actions from the actors' perspectives. ○ Rejects the idea of one objective reality, focusing on subjective experiences. ○ Prefers qualitative methods to explore human interaction and meaning. Ideal Type A methodological tool used to construct an exaggerated or "pure" version of a social phenomenon for comparison. Example: The ideal type of democracy might include characteristics like regular voting practices, checks and balances, and representation, against which real political systems like Canada or the U.S. can be measured. Bureaucracy Definition: A structured and formal organization with clear rules and a hierarchy designed for efficiency. Key Features: ○ Division of labour: Specialized roles to increase productivity. ○ Hierarchy of authority: Clear lines of command. ○ Written rules: Formal guidelines that govern actions. ○ Impersonality: Decisions are made based on rules, not personal relationships ○ Technical qualifications: Hiring and promotion are based on competence rather than favouritism. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Main Argument: The rise of modern capitalism is linked to the Protestant ethic, particularly Calvinism. Features of Capitalist Spirit: ○ Wealth accumulation beyond basic needs is seen as virtuous. ○ Consumption is discouraged in favour of saving and investment. Elective Affinity: The synergy between Calvinism and capitalism is rooted in shared values, such as: ○ Idleness as sin: Encourages industriousness. ○ Asceticism: Promotes savings and minimal consumption. ○ These religious values contributed to the development of the capitalist economy. Domination Domination = Power + Legitimacy. Definition of Power: The probability of a person or group achieving their will, even against resistance from others. Legitimacy: The belief in the rightfulness of power, which sustains authority. Types of Social Action 1. Instrumental Rational: Actions motivated by calculated means to achieve specific goals. 2. Value Rational: Actions guided by deeply held beliefs, regardless of the outcome. 3. Affectual: Actions are driven by emotions or personal feelings. 4. Traditional: Actions performed out of habit or long-standing customs. Types of Authority 1. Traditional Authority: Based on established customs and traditions (e.g., monarchies). 2. Legal-Rational Authority: Based on formal laws and rules (e.g., bureaucracies, modern states). 3. Charismatic Authority: Based on the personal qualities and extraordinary leadership of an individual (e.g., revolutionary leaders). Weber vs. Marx Marx: Sees history driven by class struggle within economic systems, especially between the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Weber: Argues that history is driven by power struggles across multiple dimensions, including class, status, and party. ○ Weber critiques Marx's economic determinism, asserting that power and authority are not solely tied to class relations. Conflict Theory Key Idea: Society is composed of groups with unequal power. The privileged use their resources to exploit the underprivileged, leading to conflict. Weber's View: Conflict is multidimensional (involving not just class, but also status and party), making social change more complex than economic systems alone. Conclusion Max Weber's contributions emphasize the importance of understanding subjective meaning in social actions and the role of authority in shaping social structures. While Marx focused on economic determinism, Weber highlighted the broader complexity of power, authority, and social action. His insights into bureaucracy, the Protestant ethic, and the interplay between religion and capitalism remain influential in modern sociology. Week 4, L1 Understanding Gender in Feminist Theory and Sociology Feminist Theory: Rooted in a political movement, defined by its commitment to addressing inequality and advocating for social change. ○ Joan Alway: Feminist theory carries a radical political commitment and challenges traditional social structures. ○ Feminist "Waves": i. Liberal Feminism ii. Radical Feminism iii. Intersectional/Postmodern Feminism Quotes from Feminist Thinkers: ○ Audre Lorde: Emphasizes the personal as political, urging individuals to confront internalized fears and prejudices. ○ Simone de Beauvoir: Highlights the connection between anxiety over masculinity and male aggression toward women. ○ Andrea Dworkin: Critiques the concept of gender equality, suggesting that it risks replicating power structures. Sociology: The systematic study of social behaviour and phenomena within societies. ○ Example Question: Why do people commit suicide? (Analysis: Social integration directly influences suicide rates.) Key Sociological Questions About Gender 1. How does gender contribute to economic inequality between men and women? 2. How does gender influence everyday interactions? 3. How does gender differentiation contribute to social stability? Sociological Theories and Gender 1. Conflict Theory (Focus on power and resource distribution): ○ Primary Question: Who benefits from women's inequality? ○ Key Theorists: Karl Marx, Max Weber, Ralf Dahrendorf. ○ View: Society is characterized by power struggles, exploitation, and inequality. Social change occurs through conflict over resources.  2. Functionalism (Focus on the purpose of social phenomena): ○ Primary Question: What is the functional role of gender in society? ○ Key Theorists: Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton, Talcott Parsons. ○ View: Society is a balanced system where all parts contribute to social order. Gender differentiation ensures societal stability through roles and socialization. 3. Symbolic Interactionism (Focus on social interactions and meanings): ○ Primary Question: How is gender socially constructed? ○ Key Theorists: Herbert Blumer, George Mead, Charles Cooley, Erving Goffman. ○ View: Gender emerges through everyday interactions and the creation of shared meanings. Changing social meanings can reduce labeling and stigma associated with gender roles. Challenges of Feminist Theory in Sociology Radical Challenge: Feminist theory confronts sociology's foundational ideas, particularly the dichotomous categories that dominate sociological thought. Unfamiliar Voice: Its emphasis on subjective experience and critique of traditional methods are often seen as unfamiliar or even "questionable." Joan Alway: Argues that feminism displaces sociology's problematic of modernity, shifting focus from industrialization and rationalization to issues of gendered power dynamics. Feminist Contributions to Sociology Feminism questions power, inequality, and societal structures from a gendered perspective, critiquing both mainstream sociology and societal norms. ○ Key Theorists: Nellie McClung, Dorothy Smith, Joan Alway. ○ Feminism highlights how society is characterized by gender inequality and male dominance. ○ Solution: Abolishing patriarchy and establishing gender equality through social change. Feminist Research and Methodologies Feminist Research: Seeks to create social change by addressing women's experiences, diversity, and marginalized perspectives. a. Shulamit Reinharz: i. Feminism is a perspective, not a method. ii. Multiple research methods are used, often transdisciplinary. iii. Aims for social change and includes the researcher’s role in the process. Marjorie Devault: Identifies three goals of feminist methodology: i. Bringing attention to what has been ignored or suppressed (e.g., women's experiences). ii. Developing methods that minimize harm to women. iii. Supporting research that benefits women, aiming for social change. Sandra Harding: Introduces the concept of Strong Objectivity, arguing that marginalized groups, including women, have an epistemologically privileged standpoint that strengthens the objectivity of research. Standpoint Theory Advocates that individuals from marginalized groups possess unique insights into social structures, as their experiences of oppression provide a privileged perspective for understanding societal power dynamics. Conclusion This lecture emphasizes gender as a fundamental organizing principle of social life, critically examining its role in shaping power, inequality, and social structures through multiple sociological lenses. Feminist theory and research methodologies are presented as essential to understanding and challenging gender inequality, with the goal of creating social change. Week 4, L2 W.E.B. Du Bois Overview Born: 1868, in Massachusetts. Education: ○ BA from Fisk University. ○ Ph.D. from Harvard University (first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard). Career: ○ Professor at Atlanta University. ○ Director of Research at the NAACP. Later Life: Moved to Ghana in 1961 and died in 1963. Major Works 1. The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the USA (dissertation). 2. The Philadelphia Negro. 3. The Souls of Black Folk. 4. Black Reconstruction in America. 5. Dusk of Dawn. The Souls of Black Folk: ○ Emphasizes marginalized standpoints and the concept of otherness. ○ Introduces concepts like the veil and double consciousness, highlighting the internal conflict of being both black and American. ○ Methodological Intervention: Du Bois introduced a new way of analyzing race within sociology, focusing on agency, resistance, and collective consciousness. Themes: ○ The Color Line: The division between races, particularly between black and white Americans. ○ Double Consciousness: The experience of seeing oneself through the eyes of a racist society while maintaining one's own identity. ○ Pan-Africanism: Advocacy for the unity and cooperation of African nations and people of African descent. Patricia Hill Collins and Black Feminist Thought (BFT) Overview: ○ First black woman to serve as ASA president (2009). ○ Leading scholar in intersectionality and developer of Black Feminist Thought (BFT). Significance of Black Feminist Thought: ○ Published in 1986, BFT became a groundbreaking contribution to sociology. ○ It challenges dominant narratives by centralizing the experiences and perspectives of black women. Core Themes of BFT: ○ Self-Definition and Self-Valuation: The importance of black women defining their own identities and valuing themselves outside the dominant stereotypes. ○ Interlocking Nature of Oppression: Black women experience overlapping forms of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, classism). ○ Cultural Importance: Black women’s cultural knowledge and experiences are crucial in understanding their social positioning. The Outsider Within: ○ Refers to the unique position black women occupy in academia and society, allowing them to critique and resist the dominant white male worldview. ○ This standpoint is applicable to other marginalized groups, providing a methodological perspective to challenge distorted societal facts and assumptions. Critical Race Theory (CRT) Development: ○ Emerged in the late 20th century, initially drawing from legal cases that demonstrated the persistence of racism in the U.S. ○ Evolved beyond legal theory and became a tool for sociologists to understand the reproduction of racism in society. Four Tenets of CRT: a. Racism as a Permanent Feature:  Racism is embedded in the social fabric of American society, not an aberration. b. Intersectionality: Racism intersects with other forms of domination like sexism, classism, heterosexism, and ableism. c. White Supremacy: CRT directly addresses white supremacy, focusing on how it is maintained through legal, political, and social systems. d. Resistance: Emphasizes narratives, lived experiences, and the tradition of antiracist activism within the black radical tradition. Key Concepts in CRT: a. Racial Realism: Coined by Derrick Bell, racial realism asserts that racial inequality is a permanent feature of society. This view encourages those fighting racism to have no illusions about the deep-rooted nature of systemic racism. b. Intersectionality: Coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, this concept emphasizes that forms of oppression are inextricably linked, meaning we cannot understand racism in isolation from other oppressive systems. c. White Supremacy: CRT challenges the euphemisms used to describe racism, instead calling it out directly as white supremacy, which is entrenched in law and politics. d. Narrative and Resistance: CRT values storytelling and lived experiences as essential tools for understanding and resisting racism. It draws from the black radical tradition of resistance. Conclusion This lecture explored Critical Race Theory and Black Feminist Thought, emphasizing the importance of analyzing race and gender through intersectional and critical lenses. The works of W.E.B. Du Bois and Patricia Hill Collins were highlighted for their significant contributions to the understanding of race, agency, oppression, and resistance. CRT provides a framework for understanding how racism is perpetuated and resisted in society, while Black Feminist Thought foregrounds the experiences and insights of black women, challenging dominant narratives and offering paths to empowerment and social change. Week 5, L1 Introduction to Intersectionality Patricia Hill Collins & Sirma Bilge define intersectionality as a framework for understanding how various axes of social division—such as race, gender, and class—interact to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege. These categories do not operate in isolation but are interconnected, influencing one another and the lives of individuals in complex ways. Key quote: “When it comes to social inequality, people’s lives and the organization of power in a given society are better understood as being shaped not by a single axis of social division... but by many axes that work together and influence each other” (Collins & Bilge, 2016). Historical Context: The Combahee River Collective This Black lesbian organization, active during the 1970s, is an essential historical example of intersectional thinking before the term was officially coined. The collective recognized that Black women experience oppression in multiple forms—racial, sexual, heterosexual, and class-based—and these forms of oppression are interlocking. Their statement: “The synthesis of these oppressions creates the conditions of our lives. As Black women, we see Black feminism as the logical political movement to combat the manifold and simultaneous oppressions that all women of color face.” The Combahee River Collective was an early advocate of an integrated analysis and practice, linking various systems of oppression into one cohesive framework. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s Contributions Crenshaw, a critical legal scholar, is the key figure who formalized the concept of intersectionality. Her work highlights how Black women face double discrimination, meaning they experience unique oppression not only because of their race but also because of their gender. Crenshaw criticizes how mainstream feminist and anti-racist movements have historically overlooked the compounded experiences of Black women.  Crenshaw’s intersectional framework is divided into: ○ Structural Intersectionality: Examines how legal structures, policies, and resources affect different groups of women, especially women of color, in distinct ways. It shows how the legal system may perpetuate racial and gender inequalities, even unintentionally. ○ Political Intersectionality: Focuses on how feminist and anti-racist politics, despite their good intentions, often exclude the unique struggles of women of color. Feminist movements sometimes prioritize gender over race, while anti-racist movements may focus on race, overlooking gender-related issues. ○ Representational Intersectionality: Explores how media and cultural representations often fail to account for the dual experiences of sexism and racism that women of color face. For example, representations of Black women in media may ignore their specific experiences or frame them through limited, stereotypical lenses. Anti-Essentialism: Crenshaw also critiques the universalization of women’s experiences, particularly in mainstream feminism, which often centers on the experiences of white women. Anti-essentialism rejects the notion that all women share the same struggles, instead recognizing the diversity of women’s experiences shaped by race, class, sexuality, and other factors. Core Ideas of Intersectional Frameworks Crenshaw and other intersectional theorists emphasize six key ideas central to intersectional analysis: 1. Inequality: Social inequality cannot be understood by focusing on just one dimension (e.g., class or gender); it must consider how various dimensions intersect to create unique forms of disadvantage. 2. Relationality: This concept highlights how different social categories (race, gender, class, etc.) interact with one another, producing different social positions and power dynamics. 3. Power: Intersectionality focuses on how power operates through multiple axes, which can create complex and shifting systems of domination and privilege.  4. Social Context: The context in which inequalities occur is crucial; intersectionality emphasizes that social dynamics are shaped by specific historical, cultural, and geographical conditions. 5. Complexity: Intersectional analysis rejects simplistic or one-dimensional understandings of oppression. Instead, it stresses the need for complex analyses that take into account multiple interacting factors. 6. Social Justice: Intersectionality advocates for understanding oppression to advance social justice efforts, aiming to create inclusive movements that recognize and address the unique experiences of marginalized groups. Domains of Power Intersectionality theorists argue that power operates across multiple domains, not only in obvious or overt ways but also through subtle, systemic processes. The four key domains are: Interpersonal Power: Power as it operates on a personal or individual level, within relationships and everyday interactions. This includes the micro-level experiences of prejudice, discrimination, or privilege. Disciplinary Power: How institutions, laws, and policies exert control over individuals and shape social outcomes. Disciplinary power is embedded in legal and bureaucratic systems that enforce norms and manage populations. Cultural Power: Refers to the norms, values, and representations that define what is considered “normal” or “acceptable” in a society. Cultural power is often wielded through media, education, and other cultural institutions. Structural Power: The overarching systems of domination that shape society, such as capitalism, patriarchy, white supremacy, and heteronormativity. These structures create the conditions in which all other forms of power operate. Crenshaw’s Legacy and Contemporary Movements Crenshaw's work has informed modern movements like #BlackLivesMatter, #BlackQueerLivesMatter, and #BlackTransLivesMatter, which explicitly embrace intersectional approaches to understanding and combating oppression.  Crenshaw’s focus on anti-essentialism and the rejection of color-blind racism are central to contemporary social justice efforts. Anti-essentialism emphasizes the need to avoid simplifying or reducing individuals’ identities, and color-blind racism is critiqued for ignoring how race still shapes social inequalities. Conclusion The lecture underlines that intersectionality is a crucial analytical tool for examining the complex, interconnected systems of oppression that shape people’s lives. By understanding how different forms of inequality intersect, intersectionality helps us move toward a more inclusive and comprehensive vision of social justice​. Week 6, L1 Key Figures and Concepts Linda Tuhiwai Smith (Māori Researcher and Educator) Key work: Decolonizing Methodologies (1999), foundational in qualitative research concerning Indigenous peoples. Argument: Western knowledge has been produced through a “cultural archive” built on colonialism and imperialism. ○ Colonialism: The physical acquisition or occupation of land in another country. ○ Imperialism: Extending a country’s power and influence over others. Cultural Archive: A metaphorical "storehouse" of histories, artifacts, texts, images, and ideas. Western archives rely on specific rules to classify, preserve, and represent knowledge, often reinforcing power structures. These archives have real material consequences for Indigenous people. Systems of classification determine what counts as real knowledge, and through these systems, power and domination are played out, harming colonized peoples. Critique of Western Knowledge Production Smith critiques positivism—the belief that phenomena can be objectively studied without subjective interference. She argues that Western projects have created harmful impacts on Indigenous peoples through discourses related to: 1. Race and Gender: Western racialized discourses, supported by ideas about human reason and science, historically justified colonialism. The ideal qualities of women were shaped by ancient Greek and Roman texts, which continue to influence the marginalization of Indigenous women. 2. Individual and Society: The social scientific focus on observable, causal relationships (e.g., between individuals and social structures) is inherently Western. Indigenous worldviews, like those of the Māori, reject such binary distinctions, for instance, having no concept of "mind" as separate from body.  3. Time and Space: Indigenous languages often don’t distinguish between time and space, while Western knowledge has compartmentalized these concepts. The colonial practices that emerged from Western knowledge production include renaming land, building infrastructure (roads, ports), and displaying Indigenous cultures in museums. These actions shaped Indigenous people's dispossession and reappropriation of their land. Spatial Colonial Vocabulary Smith outlines how spatial control under colonialism is constructed through three key concepts: The Line: Physical demarcations like boundaries, maps, roads, and claims. The Centre: The central authority of the colonizing power, represented by places like the “mother country” or central colonial institutions (e.g., churches, magistrates). The Outside: The colonized lands and people seen as peripheral, "uninhabited" or "uncharted." Anne McClintock (Colonialism and Gender) Born in Zimbabwe and raised in South Africa, McClintock is a professor of Gender and Sexualities Studies at Princeton. She writes about the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality in colonialism and imperialism. Panoptical Time: McClintock discusses how colonial history is often consumed "at a glance"—a simplified narrative from a position of privileged invisibility, suggesting that non-European spaces are prehistoric or atavistic, reinforcing a sense of European superiority. Anachronistic Space: Colonialists viewed colonized spaces as out of sync with modernity. Imperial progress was framed as a journey backward into “prehistory,” while the return to Europe was seen as the fulfillment of historical progress. McClintock emphasizes that colonial practices are intertwined with race, gender, and class, and that these ideas were not only imposed on colonies but were also exported back to Europe. She argues that colonialism is fundamentally about fear and anxiety, stemming from the need to control and dominate. Edward Said (Orientalism) Key work: Orientalism—a critique of how the West (Occident) constructed the East (Orient) as its "Other." Orientalism: A framework through which the West came to understand and dominate the Orient, not as a direct political tool but as a discourse that pervaded all areas of Western thought, from aesthetic to scholarly texts. This discourse created a geographical and cultural division between the Orient and the Occident, framing the Orient as exotic, backward, and inferior. Said argues that Orientalism is not just a political construct but a cultural framework deeply embedded in Western thought. It serves as a lens for viewing the world and reinforces the West's power over the East, though not always directly through imperial control. Main Points of Said’s Orientalism: a. The relationship between the Orient and Occident is a power relationship. b. Western knowledge production has historically been tied to imperialism and colonialism. c. Orientalism reflects a geopolitical awareness, dividing the world into East and West to reinforce Western dominance. d. Knowledge production, including sociology, has historically marginalized Indigenous and non-Western peoples. Key Takeaways from Lecture 1. Western knowledge systems have materially harmed marginalized groups, especially Indigenous peoples, by imposing categories and frameworks that reinforce power imbalances. 2. Colonial and imperial practices rest on the intersections of race, gender, and class, and these ideologies were exported back to the West, shaping Western culture itself. 3. Orientalism represents how Western knowledge reinforces power dynamics through discourse, shaping perceptions of the East and justifying imperial domination. 4. The lecture encourages critical reflection on taken-for-granted concepts like time, space, and power. By understanding how these ideas are rooted in colonialism, we can challenge their continued influence on contemporary social and political systems. These decolonial, anti-Orientalist, and anti-imperialist perspectives emphasize the need to rethink the structures of knowledge and power in order to achieve a more equitable understanding of history and society​