Soc Notes: Politics, Power & Authority PDF

***SOCY NOTES*** [Study Unit 1: Politics, power, and authority] (Chapter 16) Outcomes: - define the concepts power, authority, government and state; - describe the following types of authority: traditional, charismatic and rational-legal; - describe the following types of governments...

***SOCY NOTES*** [Study Unit 1: Politics, power, and authority] (Chapter 16) Outcomes: - define the concepts power, authority, government and state; - describe the following types of authority: traditional, charismatic and rational-legal; - describe the following types of governments: democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian and theocratic; - compare and contrast democratic and authoritarian systems of government; and - distinguish between power elite and pluralist models of power sharing  power power and politics [Marxists]- Government serves interest of dominant capitalist group Racial elite theory- Government controlled by small power elite Antonio Gramsci - Hegemony: the most powerful political group/ the group which dominates others politically - Power is expressed in different ways and Gramsci speaks about Coercion (direct use of force) and consent (ideas and ideologies) Authority - [Weber] identifies three types of authority power that is: 1. Traditional authority: - Accepted on the bases of its legitimacy of its existence - Example inherited power of monarchy (kings, queens) - People accept traditional authority because they are invested in the past and feel obligated to perpetuate it. - Depends on group respect 2. Charismatic authority - People accept the power of a certain person because they are drawn to the leaders\' personal qualities - This power usually emerge in crisis and offers innovative or radical solutions - Charismatic leaders tend to hold power for a short duration 3. Rational-legal authority - This power is made legitimate by laws, written rules, regulations etc. - Power is invested in a particular rational system/ ideology and not in a person - Example: Constitution State vs Government State Government State form: - Different forms of state exists. - Current form: Capitalism - Other forms of state: - Military states - Authoritarian states - Liberal democratic states - Domination and Struggle - State servers\' interest of dominant group - Due to division of society into dominated and dominant groups social struggles take place - Ongoing struggles make politics more than just voting in elections - Nation-States - States linked to national groups including citizens, which have their own specific history and special territory. - Each nation state is linked to each other in a global system Segregation, Apartheid and Post-Apartheid South Africa Segregation and apartheid: - South Africa was formed as a nation-state in 1910 - Since 1910 to 1948 pre-apartheid segregation period. - The ANC was formed in 1912 in response to racial segregation - In 1948 Apartheid started based on Afrikanerdom racism. - Throughout the 1980s pressure to end Apartheid started to gain momentum in South Africa and other countries in the world Post-apartheid - The early 1990's were seen as transitional years - In 1994 the first nation-wide election took place - Key factors shaped the ANC's policies and programs - Most progressive constitutions - End of the Cold War - Keynesianism Theoretical Perspectives on State and Society - Sociologists have created various ways of looking at politics - These perspectives link to existing sociological theories - Theories are in direct competition - Each theory is linked to the notion of autonomy Pluralism - Liberal democratic societies are marked by : - Substantive or actual democracy - In which diffusion, power prevails - Strengthened and guarded by important mechanisms and institutions - Democracy exists in practice sense. - Society is divided into different groups - It is impossible to please all groups - The state cannot meet the demands of all groups/ people in society - Through the exercise of power government ultimately benefits society at large equally. - No one group wins over another - State mediates competing demands - No single group can monopolize resources - Multiple sites of power - Different groups have varying degrees of influence at different times - Politicians seek national interest - Main mechanisms inhibiting concentration of power - Political parties adhere to Stephen Luke's: Faces of Power - First Face: Examining power in terms of observable or actual political decisions\ It Involves: - Openly debating a public issue - Pressure groups articulating policy - Public decision is made - Criticisms of Political parties - Alternative choice is illusionary - Party leaders have upper class backgrounds - Parties have minimal involvement - Selective about issues raised publicly - Criticisms of Pressure groups - Meaningful pressure groups - Degree of influence - Position of importance - Unable to voice views Radical Elitism - The State serves the interest of a small elite group - No autonomy form the state - Types of elitist theories: - Conservative elitism - Radical elitism - Power elite has always been in history - Comprised of the military, economy and political elites - Why come together? - Common belief - Needs complement each other - Not always united - Elite know exactly what is in their best interest - Second face of power: - Private face of power - Only safe issues become public - No accountability of actions - Power rests with power elite - Weakened formal democracy Marxism - Based on the work of Karl Marx. - Two classes exists in capitalist society - Dominant class has access to resources. - Working class sells labour to earn wages - Economic exploitation transfers into political domination - Capitalist state. - State and government appears to reflect the wishes of citizens - Governing party does not matter - All parties maintain capitalist system - Approaches: - Instrumentalism - Structuralism - Third Face of Power: - Ideology and legitimation - Form of power Theoretical views to disaster management act in SA: pluralist, Radical Elitism and Marxism - Pluralists\' theory: - Economic effects of covid 19 and lockdown regulations goes against Marxist views of the state - Radical Elitism may provide the best explanation as it acknowledges the power of the state - Thus, state closing down businesses during lockdown affects negatively the profit of large corporation (dismantle economic and political unison) [Study Unit 2: Education ] (Chapter 12) Outcomes: - define formal and informal schooling; - list and explain the social functions of education; - explain, using the conflict perspective, the ways in which educational experience is structured to create and perpetuate advantage and privilege; - discus some of the challenges of the South African education system; and - compare and contrast rich (private) and poor (public) schools and their impact on educational outcomes.  Important Concepts in the Sociology of Education. 1.Formal Education\ 2.Informal Education\ 3.Role of Education\ 4.Hidden curriculum\ 5.Education in South Africa The study of the sociology of education\ provides an understanding of the following:\ 1.The role of education as a transmission of culture in society\ 2.The function of education in society\ 3.The role of schools in society\ 4.The role of higher education institutions in society\ 5.Education and the labour market The sociology of education is characterised by\ two dominant streams of thought\ 1.those who view education as imparting science\ 2.those who argue that education serves broader social functions. Background - Societies structure the educational experience. - Education is seen as the means whereby children can develop their full potential and hence take up a meaningful place in society. - It is questionable whether education is able to meet the educational needs of diverse populations, integrate diverse populations, provide equality of educational opportunity and access to higher education. - It can be argued that education helps to perpetuate and reproduce levels of inequality - According to the constitution of South Africa 1996 - Everyone has a right:\ a. to a basic education, including adult basic education; and\ b. to further education, which the state, through reasonable measures, must make progressively available and accessible. Theoretical Perspectives On Education **1. FUNCTIONALISM**\ Schools perform a number of important social functions that ideally contribute to the smooth operation of society. Uses Human analogy to understand society. [Emile Durkheim] believes education was important for socialising children:\ - This way they would come to know the norms, values, beliefs, acceptable forms of behaviour they are expected to adopt.\ - In industrial societies it also teaches people the skills needed in the workplace. [Talcott Parsons] believed in the importance of individual achievement and believed school instilled this through:\ - Universal standards --e.g. exams\ - Meritocratic process [Functions of education according to functionalism] - transmitting skills - facilitating change and progress - contributing basic and applied research - integrating diverse populations - screening and selecting the most qualified students for what are considered the most socially important careers. **2. CONFLICT THEORY** Any analysis of school systems must focus on the ways the educational\ experience is structured to create and perpetuate advantage and privilege. These theorists identified 2 main groups: 1. the haves dominant group, commands power & privilege, has access to resources 2. the have-nots lacks power in society This power dynamic between the 2 groups results in tension and conflict between them Conflict theorists believes that schools are not perfect:\ i. not all minds are liberated\ ii. students drop out\ iii. students refuse to attend or graduate\ iv. schools misclassify students and so on The conflict perspective draws our attention to issues of inequality by asking the following kinds of questions:\ i. Who writes the curriculum?\ ii. Who has access to the most up-to- date computer or athletic facilities?\ iii. Which groups are most likely to drop out of high school and which to attend university?\ iv. Who studies abroad?\ v. How do schools simply perpetuate the inequalities of larger society? - Schools serving the low income and other disadvantaged students usually have the highest dropout rates and lowest graduation rates - Some conflict theorists saw schooling as "producing the right kind of workers for capitalist economies" Education is known for showing both manifest (obvious) and latent (concealed) functions of society. The manifest function- is recognised and intended to provide skills and prepare learners for their future roles in society The Latent function- is unrecognised and unintended and is sometimes referred to as the hidden curriculum that Prepares students to accept what is given and not to be critical or question things. Curriculum contains:\ subject content,\ assessment methods and activities\ \...involved in teaching and learning for a specific course, grade or degree. Social reproduction - [Bourdieu] devised a broad theory of cultural reproduction which connects economic position, social status and symbolic capital with cultural knowledge and skills - Using Marx's idea of 'capital' Bourdieu regarded economic capital as being just\ one way that groups/individuals gain advantage over others. - [Pierre Bourdieu's] (1977) theory: individuals come to know and internalize what is objectively possible for someone with their educational credentials. - Someone with a college or graduate degree, on the other hand, will likely expect to live free of poverty and to earn a relatively high salary. Such assumptions match an objective reality. Economic capital: Cultural capital: - Both economic and cultural capitals are distributed unequally throughout society. Social reproduction: Habitus The 'habitus' is the objective reality internalized\ That internalized reality becomes the mental filter through which people understand the social world and their place in it EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT: - In South Africa, during the apartheid era, education was strategically employed by the Nationalist government to promote racial ideologies and notions of white supremacy. - Apartheid education were deliberately designed to privilege white and disadvantage black students in South Africa. - Segregated schooling predated apartheid by centuries --with mission schools (from the 18th century) being the only opportunity for Black, Coloured and Indians youth to get a 'Western education' - Racial divisions intensified in various industries, e.g. mining industry -- leading to "job colour bars" - Early 20th century gave birth to geographical separation of races, separate systems of political representation and inferior (non- compulsory) education for Blacks - School enrolments quadrupled between 1953 and 1975 --at least in part due to industry requiring more educated workers - The introduction of Afrikaans as a language of instruction in 1976 led to significant uprisings - In the 1980s : - "Bantu Education, as a system designed to control the aspirations of Africans and\ school them for subservience, had failed. - Instead South Africa was increasingly ungovernable and change was imminent." - White schools were emptying (declining populations in some areas) and many Black schools didn't have enough desks. - Whites-only schools were given a choice in late 1990: - Model A --schools become private - Model B --schools could adopt their own admission procedures - Model C --conversion into semi-private schools (50% plus 1 White enrolment) Post-apartheid restructuring: Crisis in South Africa's education system - Poor education outcomes contributed to a decline in South Africa's global competitiveness - Drop from 45th position in 2009/2010 to 54 th (2011) to 61 (2017-2018) - Basic education ranks 129th out of 139 countries - South Africa still faces the reality of two different education systems, a dysfunctional schooling system (75%) and a functional schooling system (25%) On-going inequalities: - Desegregation of previously White-only schools: - Made no significant impact for the majority of the population - Although those schools were open new students were expected to assimilate without there being any significant/institutional change The school system was not yet systematically able to overcome inherited\ socio-economic disadvantage at the primary level, and poor schools least so. On top of this differential school outcomes are likely to translate into large\ labour market inequalities. Higher education: - South Africa's higher education system consist of 23 public-funded universities - Ongoing inequalities afflict higher learning - During apartheid, black students were prevented from attending\ universities (policies, financial constraints, lack of merit) - All South African institutions are required to develop and comply with appropriate measures for redress past inequalities - Increased financial support for black students through NSFAS - SA --national senior certificate (bachelors pass) needed to enter university (university exemption) Educational attainment: Other factors - Coloured learners perform better than Blacks in the lower grades, this advantage disappears in high school. One of the reasons for this which they posit was a long- term trend due to disparities of the past and present OTHER FACTORS: - Growing up in the New South Africa (Bray et al, 2010): - Lasting relationship between class, race and neighbourhood - Strong belief in the importance of education, but the dropping out of high school is the more pervasive 'norm'. - Also, "the nature of \[someone's\] previous and current domestic, schooling and neighbourhood environments" are going to be more significant indicators of whether someone is going to drop-out than behaviours such as drinking, sexual activity and smoking. Aspirations toward higher education: 1. Needing to proceed to higher education to improve your chances of getting a job 2. A desire to enter a particular profession 3. An interest in studying in a particular field 4. Higher education enabling you to earn more money one day 5. The status which a higher education qualification will give you 6. Your academic performance at school 7. Your parents/relatives wanting you to study at a higher education institution 8. Your ability to get financial assistance to study at a higher education\ institution 9. Your parents/relatives wanting you to get your studies over with so that you can support yourself and/or them 10. A teacher persuading you to study at a higher education institution [Study unit 3: Sociology of work] [(Chapter 13)] Outcomes: - discuss and evaluate the meaning of work; - discuss and evaluate the transition of work from historical periods to the current; - explain and apply the various sociological perspectives of work; - describe and discuss the notions of unemployment and the factors that influence it; - list and explain the several features of the labour force; - describe and understand the concept of power in the workplace; and - apply your own situations to issues surrounding the future of work. Work - Work is usually conducted in exchange for salary - Decades ago, work was exchanged for anything in return --food,\ articles, shelter, etc. - Concept of work associated predominantly with paid\ employment - Paid employment is vital - cost of living\ should be covered - Irrespective of class, creed or nationality, maintaining a job is a significant part of life History of work is South Africa Reasons to work was influenced by social obligations to kin\ In the case of Hunter-gatherers:\ - Work was done to consume the day with productive activities\ - Work came to a halt as the minimum necessary activity has been reached\ - Immediate consumers of food Colonialism - Cape trade route was monopolised by the Portuguese during 16th century. - Slave trading a large part of trade - The Dutch East Indian Company, VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie) adapted all measures to enhance their business interests such as, tariffs, monopoly, favouritism, corruption, slavery, dismissal without legal process - The VOC used legal and illegal measures to protect their commercial interests Pre-industrial era - Discovery of diamonds (1870) and gold (1872) played an influential role in South Africa's industrialization - Before this, SA was an agricultural society - The Master and Servant Act (1841) governed employment relations - The act was amended in 1856 whereby black servants would be subjected to harsh punishment if they defaulted in their work. - The act also governed rules of work, particularly for black employees. - Collective labour relations were also non-existent during this time. - During this rea black African employees were employed mainly as unskilled servants on farms. - Skilled work was undertaken by white people, some of whom were immigrants or slaves that arrived from the East. Early industrialisation - Discovery of gold (1870) and diamonds (1872) resulted in: - An influx of labour in Witwatersrand - Generation of industries that support the mining community --railway, engineering, building industries - European immigrants who were mostly British were employed because South Africa experienced an inadequate supply of skilled labour - In 1897 the 1^st^ regulation based on industrial colour bar was passed, which prohibited black African employees from certain jobs and occupations - In the early 1900s strike action was on the rise by white and black employees - In 1911 'Mines and Works Act' established that reserved jobs for white mine workers - In 1913 the large scale strikes occurred and the Riotous Assemblies Act passed, to prevent riots and maintain peace and order - In 1914 the Industrial Disputes and Trades Bill was passed which curtailed any strikes until conciliation procedures were followed - Unions were emerging in secondary industries and services namely: engineering, building trade, etc. Work in these industries was semi-skilled or unskilled. Employees were of all races - In 1922 white workers went on strike and as a result 153 miners killed, and 500 wounded. The Government decided that statutory machinery for collective bargaining and the settlement of disputes were required - This resulted in the drafting of the Industrial Conciliation Act of 1924 The rise in Manufacturing and Service industries (1925-1948) - Flourishing of gold mine industry led to growth in manufacturing and service sectors - Unionisation among employees occurred - Several labour councils developed and as a result labour relations rationalized - Extensive strikes commenced in an attempt to foster better working conditions - In 1930 the Industrial Conciliation Act was amended and allowed for representation of black African employee interests on industrial councils The apartheid era - The history of work has been influenced by the Apartheid regime of the National Party (1948) - A hierarchy of racial groups existed in which white people held the highest ranking - Race groups were segregated in terms of housing, residential areas, social activities, and type of work carried out - Certain jobs were reserved for white people and others, usually lower paying jobs for black people - The Apartheid regime was a system of:\ - racial segregation\ - difference in their rights in the workplace and society POST-APARTHEID - Today, everyone has the right to vote - Several redress policies and new labour legislations had been put in place: - Labour Relations Act - Employment Equity Act - Basic Conditions of Employment Act - Skills Development Act - The Aim was to: - De-racialize workplaces - Create democratic workplaces - This Era was characterised by: - Increased casualisation of work - Growth in youth unemployment - Growth in labour flexibility - Decline in union membership (some sectors) - Jobless economic growth The transition of work - in the Beginning of 20th century Henry Ford was aware that there existed a potential market for cars - In 1909 he stated: "I will build a car for the great multitude\...it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one" - He set up his 1st assembly line in 1913 - A Division of labour, fragmented tasks, Standardization of products, Mass production, Tight managerial control existed under this approach - It was believed that deskilling, and the degrading of jobs and other labour problems would be solved by introducing high wages (\$5 a day - 1914) - Fordist design:\ - Promoted alienation of workers & Decrease morale - [Marx] viewed Work as an activity through which man could achieve self-realization - [Marx, Engels &Tucker] believed escalation of alienation was due to:\ - Private property\ - Transformation of labour into a commodity\ - Division of labour - [Weber] believed that Alienation occurs due to:\ - Bureaucracy ("depersonalization")\ - Loss of individuality\ - Loss of the abilities to obtain one 'sown purpose (self-actualization) - Alienation - The Fordist model reached its peak in the West in 1950's, but by the mid-1970's Fordism was in crises - Fordism failed because of:\ - Inflexible labour forces\ - Rigidity\ - Nature of skills\ - Consumer demand - Neo-Fordism (alternative production system):\ - Allow for greater flexibility in production\ - Use of technology\ - Expand range of products offered\ - Tight managerial control still enforced POST-FORDISM Key concepts of post-Fordism: \- decentralisation \- to become more flexible \- to specialise \- to do away with the assembly line \- to enhance the level of skills of workers \- create team structures \- seek put specialised niche markets for high quality products and services Sociological perspectives of work Bureaucratic vs non-bureaucratic structures **Supermarket X- bureaucratic** **Supermarket Y- non- bureaucratic** --------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- Mistakes- difficult to correct in terms of standardised steps Cashier has power to correct mistake immediately Less freedom and autonomy for workers Less delays HERZBERG'STWO FACTOR THEORY - It is very important that employees should be treated as human beings too, not only as workers - Happy worker = productive worker - [Hygiene factors] refers to work conditions, rewards, job security, etc. - Hygiene factors increase the chances of workers remaining in the workplace over a long period of time - When at low level there is a decrease productivity which can:\ - lead to dissatisfaction if \'wrong\', but which do not lead to satisfaction if \'right'\ - Play a strong role in motivating employees - [Motivation factors] refers to achievement, advancements, recognition, growth,\ responsibility and the work itself - Hygiene factors + Motivation factors = satisfaction and motivation to perform well - Motivation factors involved:\ - A democratic approach to management\ - Enhancing the nature and content of the job through certain methods, e.g. autonomy\ - Job enlargement --a variety of tasks\ - Job enrichment --a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging task  McGregor's-Y THEORY - has as its central focus organisational development which improves organisational culture - [Theory X] explained that workers displayed a natural disliking for work - [Theory Y] on the contrary maintained that workers were active agents that enjoyed working due to goals of self-actualisation Theory X: - Refers to an authoritarian style of managing employees - Punishment had to be enforced to bring about better performance - Employees had to be directed - Suggest that the average employee: - Dislike work - Try to avoid responsibilities - Participative management style - Believe: - Employees aim to pursue organizational objectives - Coercion into work is not a motivator - Some people do like work - Trust brings about responsible behaviour - Employees take on organizational goals and align them with their own goals in an attempt to achieve self-actualization Theory Y: - This theory is useful in explaining that all workers do not always have to be coerced into fulfilling work duties, and in some instances, find work to be enjoyable.  Unemployment In south Africa: - The unemployed are those people in within the economically active population who: - Did not work during the 7 weeks prior to the interview - Want to work - Are available to start work within a week of the interview - Have taken active steps to look for work in the 4 weeks prior to the interview - SA unemployment rate Q2 2019: 29% - SA youth unemployment (15-24 years old) Q2: 56.4% - SA youth unemployment (aged 15--34 years) rate Q2 2019: 40,3% - SA youth unemployment (aged 15--24 years) rate Q2 2018: 32,3% (approximately 3,3 million) were not in employment, education or training - Several factors contribute towards level of unemployment e.g.: - The supply and demand for labour - Education and skill levels - Conditions of the economy - Willingness of individuals to work - Nature of work on offer - Conditions of employment -- working hours, working environment, level of salaries/wages Demand for labour Supply of labour - Factors that influence the supply of labour: - Skills possessed by labour force: certain skills required in labour market - Age : technological (younger); senior positions (mature age group) - Geographic locations: relocation issues (Difficult? Easy?) - Size of population (fertility and mortality rates) - Willingness to work, nature of work on offer and conditions of employment - Factors that influence the demand of labour: - Cost of hiring employees: depends on economic climate of national and international economy and success of firm - Internal and external conditions: e.g. technology can replace individuals - Demand for certain products or services within market - Influence of globalization and its integration of different countries: heightened demand of professional skills Trade Unions - Trade unions are useful in ensuring the rights of members are upheld and prevents unfair practises in the workplace [Trade unions is South Africa] 1970's: - Independent Unions involved with manufacturing, commerce, construction and\ transport - Mining and agriculture excluded from being organized - Only highly paid occupations were organised - Industrialisation system in South Africa termed dualistic: - One system for white, coloured and Indian workers\ Ruled by the Industrial Conciliation Act of 1956\ Enabled to established registered trade unions - Another system for African workers\ Restricted to plant-based work committees Workerists movement: - Consolidating the union at shop floor level - Fought against class exploitation - Argued that liberation could only occur if class system was diminished - Driven by white students --focused on class, not race Trade Unions in SA: - Congress of SA Trade Unions (COSATU) - Federation of Unions of SA (FEDUSA) - National Council of Trade Unions (NACTU) - Labour representation in National Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC) - Change work environment from pre-apartheid to post-apartheid - Strikes diminished between 1970's --1980's - Constitution & Labour legislation affords workers the right to collective bargaining - Employers and employees --not equal bargaining power Outcome of collective bargaining depends on: - Market forces and Economic environment - Profitability - Standards of living - Unemployment - Market conditions Bargaining councils:\ Permanent collective bargaining institutions established on a voluntary basis by employer and employee organisations in a specific industry to negotiate wages and other conditions of employment and to resolve disputes Factors influence or threaten trade unions:\ ▪ Recent political and economic changes\ ▪ Globalisation and flexibility\ ▪ Insecure employment\ ▪ Small businesses\ ▪ Geographic dispersion of production\ ▪ Skills composition\ ▪ Women workers\ ▪ Increased unemployment Labour force - Characteristics include: - Gender - Race - age groups of workers - foreign workers - labour legislation - labour market flexibility - These elements are very influential in shaping the current landscape of the South African labour market (p. 234) Labour market participation rate Labour legislation: - Basic Conditions of Employment Act has increased the hourly cost of labour, increased overtime premiums, etc. - Skills Development Act aims at developing and enhancing skills of the labour force by escalating. The investment levels of education and training, Additionally it aims at improving productivity and mobility of workers. - Employment Equity Act aims at achieving equality in the workplace by fostering equal opportunity and fair treatment. - Labour Relations Act (1996) created a common legislative framework for employees. It allowed:\ - Right to strike\ - Freedom of association\ - To form statutory councils\ - Promote democracy in workplace Labour market flexibility - Forms of labour market flexibility can refer to: - contracts of employment. This means that employment is non-permanent and exist for a fixed time-period. - Wage flexibility means that wages should be responsive to economic and market conditions - Working time flexibility refers to overtime, flexitime, shift work, shortened work week - Atypical employment:\ o Part-time (hours less than norm)\ o Outsourcing (catering, cleaning)\ o Dependent contractor (on employer)\ o Specialised contracting (sub-contractor)\ o Labour broking (recruits & supplies)\ o Homeworkers (from home) Women in the workplace: - representation increased - Sexual harassment - Disability and work --barriers to employment (SA Human Rights Commission Equality Project, 2012) - LGBT in the workplace -- (Section 9, Promotion of Equality and Prevention of\ Unfair Discrimination Act, 2002) Types of labour market flexibility - Atypical employment --Advantages: - Reduces cost of labour - Sidestep labour regulations - Promotes greater flexibility - Atypical employment --Disadvantages: - Low wages - Bad conditions of employment - Low of no health and safety standards - Neglected human resource development (training) - No or low employment security - Difficult for unions to organize - Employers --lose the ability to attract, bind\ and retain skilled workers The future of work Types: - With rapid internal and external changes occurring almost - daily, - nationally and - globally, - it is not an easy task to make a clear-cut definition of\ the future of work - Issues that govern the current workplace make way for us to imagine the future of work. These include the: - increase in flexible forms of employment, - the growth of informal work as well as - the surge of modern technological advances  [Study Unit 4: Health and illness] (Chapter 19) Outcomes: - discuss the sociological perspectives and approaches to health and illness and; - apply each of the perspectives to the South African context; - define the key concepts and provide appropriate examples within South Africa; and - distinguish between the different standpoints offered in the theoretical perspectives presented. Health and illness: Bio-medical model - Health constitutes freedom from disease - Focus on physical processes, biochemistry and physiology of disease - Based on empirical observation and induction Health - A state of complete physical, mental and social well‐being - Not absence of disease or infirmity and it is a dynamic state - Also includes spiritual wellbeing When a person becomes officially ill, depends on: - the individual's perception of the various symptoms being experienced, and - whether the individual thinks those symptoms require professional attention Challenges --enduring inequalities: - Poor people are still excluded from health care and services - Access to health is influenced by income - Public vs private health care makes it unequal - Medical aid: those that can afford it are medically insured. Exclusion: - How individuals or groups experience economic vulnerability and social isolation - leads to lesser access or no access at all to socio‐economic services and well‐being sociological perspectives on health +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. Functionalism | 4. Interactionism | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. Marxism | 2. Feminism | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ The functionalist perspective Theory suggests: - Through socialization of individuals in various societal institutions, individuals learn how to\ function effectively and bring harmony to society. - Different roles learnt lead to stability and cooperation in society [Talcott Parson's] 1951 The Sick Role: Illness: - Health and sickness are social phenomena - Illness is defined as deviance (actions/behaviours that are outside societal norms) - Sickness is a threat to society since it destabilizes peoples functions in society (here\ social control is relevant) Person who is sick: - Is unproductive in society (deviant) - Cannot fulfil their societal role(s) - Deviance needs to be controlled --this is true in the medical profession also Functionalists: - Health = absence of illness - Thus, this view does not acknowledge a holistic sense of health Critique of the functionalist perspective: - Blind to differential experiences of health & illness: class, gender and ethnicity - Ignores differences in historical trajectories in development of health care - Idealizes a particular form of patient‐doctor relationship - The sick role can become illegitimate even when the medical profession has diagnosed\ it as such: for example society seeing HIV‐AIDS as the victims fault and thus his or her\ rights are withheld. Interactionists - This view is concerned with human social interactions, and social meanings of illness - Thus, it focuses on - How individuals think of themselves when experiencing an illness - How that shapes interactions - Concept of 'Stigma': [Goffman] (1963) - Stigma: e.g. HIV/aids is even officially labelled as HIV 'status' - a social process experienced or anticipated - characterised by exclusion, rejection, blame or devaluation - which result from experience, perception or anticipation - of an adverse social judgement about a person or group - [Goffman] (1963): - Illness can lead to stigma --and thus can affect individual identity - Judgements about illness are value‐laden and not neutral - Stigma can result from physical differences and social stereotyping - [Susan Sontag] (1991): - Treating illness as evil demoralizes, and can block patient recovery - Stigma undermines efforts - to deal with HIV-‐AIDS pandemic, e.g.: Illness is a process - Prevents HIV testing due to the negative connotations of HIV - Hinders care‐seeking behaviour upon diagnosis, due to denialism - Prevents quality of care given - HIV positive patients may not be as well taken care of - This perspective shows how social identities emanating from illnesses influence how those who are ill, will react to and deal with their illness  - Critique of Interactionism: - Interactionists give sociology insights on how health and illness are constructed from bottom‐up with various concepts to reflect health and illness are social constructions - This view explores the micro and social aspects of health and illness by individuals and groups, but ignores structural and systemic aspect more macro‐sociological in nature. - But all is not lost in this view: Foucault's views on institutions and Goffman's on Asylums share some aspects of an institutionalist view of how health & illness is constructed THE MARXIST PERSPECTIVE - Capitalists benefit from medicine --and this is done by control of the working class - The emphasis is on conflict which arises from contradictory social positions and needs - Origin of disease and health outcomes influenced by how capitalist system operates: - Health of workers affected by industrial diseases and injuries - Environmental pollution from big industry and mines - Communities affected: industrial pollution affects many communities in SA. - Health concerns of workers not taken into account - As it increases the company's cost to take care of workers - Health interventions can reduce profit margins and down productivity - Low wages, the unhealthy food industry, unequal income all affect workers health. - Towards a critique of the Marxist view of health: - Marxists ignore the gains of capitalism, esp. In health technology & health of population - Marxists also tend to over-emphasize workers plight and not others (the disabled,\ unemployed and the like. - Still, health is commodified and privatized & very expensive in many countries (e.g. USA) and on Foucault's view of medicine. THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE - focuses on women's health concerns and explains differences in women and men's\ illnesses, deaths and life expectancy - Focus on the relationship between women's social, economic and political positioning and\ their health: women's illness, life expectancy and death are tied to being unequal in society. - Challenges negative effects of patriarchy: men's high power, their regard & benefit are due\ to the motive of capitalism on women's health: for e.g. 26% in SA are caesarean births - Focus on minority statuses (race, sexual orientation) and impact on women's health - Is critical of a bio‐medical approach to health, & how medicine controls women's health- care - Arguments: - Medical profession is male dominated - Medical influence over women is considerable --impacted upon their lives - Medicalisation is part of wider processes of social control - Feminists advocates for improvement of women's health - An acknowledgement of intersectionality (multiple oppressions simultaneously --race, gender, sexuality, class) of women's lives - Take account of social determinants of women's health - Towards a critique of the feminist view: - many important arguments are made by feminists about female health - Feminism has many strands, recent research shows a neglect of males in the gender question. - Arguments: - The need for autonomy and informed relationships between health professionals and women - A need for critical engagement with the presentation of the biomedical view as universal HEALTH INEQUALITIES - Race - Gender - Traditional vs western medicine - Health inequalities: differences in access to, and the distribution of health provision and\ services depends on birthplace, where one stays, works and one\'s age. - Socio‐economic position of individuals determines experience and access to health. - Social determinants of health include: - Income levels - Employment - Levels of unemployment - Education levels - Lifestyle - Behaviours - Race remains a significant factor for access to well‐being in post-1994 South Africa - Socio-economic conditions impact black population (access to health): - Poverty - Unemployment - Limited access to resources - Visible in health status (e.g. HIV/aids \'status\') - Factors tied to mortality are mediated by race in South Africa, which are historically determined resources and well‐being in S.A. white life expectancy is 50% more than blacks - Men's health can also be undermined, even if patriarchy is at play, as masculinity is a sense of the world held by both men and women. Gender and health inequality - Patriarchy or ruling masculinity do not necessarily benefit all men - Ruling masculinity: - A sense of the world that shape how men behave, think and relate to others, and when and how they die. - Social factors explaining why men live and die: - Employment --direct risk to life (e.g.: soldiers, fire fighters) - Risk taking behaviour --fighting, multiple sexual partners, dangerous sports - Alcohol - Women's health needs are not necessarily equitably catered for - Historically barred from access to economic resources - Majority of them are poor (feminisation of poverty Traditional medicine - Two forms exist: traditional healing and African cosmology: - The latter has been eroded and the former still exists. - African views on disease causation: Naturalistic or Supernatural. - For Naturalism: natural forces cause disease: body imbalances.\ Great knowledge exists of beneficial herbs, roots & berries. - Illness is a progression rather than a symptom and reaction is in\ accordance with the cause. - Unusual diseases: western science seeks explanations by germ theory or fungal infection. African traditional systems reject chance or accident of misfortune. - Active psychological agent that is human, sorcerer or non-human agent (spirit or ancestor) or Super-deity or powerful being) intervenes. - Multiple causes: immediate cause: what was done and who did it to the person.\ efficient cause: who or what did it to the victim\ ultimate cause: why it happened to a specific person - Supernatural (personalistic) view: healers have specialist or magical skills to determine the who and why of an illness rather than just to discern the immediate cause. - 5 cultural aspects of illness: spirit possession, sorcery, pollution, ancestral displeasure, disregard of cultural norms. Traditional treatment is holistic as it is comprehensive for healing and curing. - illness due to disturbance/imbalance: due to psychological, physical, material, interpersonal or spiritual reasons. - Cures are: blood cleansing, charms, incisions, sacrifice or prayer & piercing (African acupuncture) - The Traditional Healers Act 22 (2001) identifies 4 types of traditional healers: - Diviners diagnose mysteries (via bone throwing, clairvoyance or in by dreams or visions). - Herbalists: extensive magical powers (no occult powers). - Apprenticed by experts in the field. - Faith healers are syncretic to reincorporate Christianity and traditional culture. - Despite legal and Christian view of such healing having no 'existence', it survives in S.A. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) also exist that is outside the conventional medicine Links between health as a human rights