Sociology Study Guide Exam #2 PDF

1. What are Networks? Networks are direct and indirect connections that link individuals or groups with one another. 2. Strong ties? People you know very well and have close and sustained interaction ( family members and close friends) Higher frequency of social interaction and higher emotional i...

1. What are Networks? Networks are direct and indirect connections that link individuals or groups with one another. 2. Strong ties? People you know very well and have close and sustained interaction ( family members and close friends) Higher frequency of social interaction and higher emotional intensity Diversity in roles 3. Weak ties? People you know but not very well (acquaintances or friends of friends of friends. ) Less frequent interaction Singular role 4. What are Social Groups? A collection of people who regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations concerning behavior and who share a sense of common identity. 5. Social Aggregates? A collection of people who happen to be together in a particular place but don’t significantly interact or identify with one another. 6. Social Categories? People who share common characteristics ( gender, age or occupation) but do not necessarily interact with one another. 7. What are Ingroups ? Groups toward which one feels particular loyalty and respect, the groups to which “we” belong. 8. What are Outgroups? Groups toward which one feels antagonism and contempt, “the others.” 9. What are Primary Groups? Groups that are characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of commitment.  10. What are Secondary Groups ? Groups characterized by large size and by impersonal, fleeting relationships. 11. What are Reference Groups ? Groups that provide a standard for judging one’s attitudes or behaviors. 12. In what ways does group size impact group dynamics? As the size of the group increases, its intensity decreases, while its stability and exclusivity increases. The larger the groups, the increase of conflict. Dyad= 2 persons, Triad= three persons 13. What is Group Conformity? The pressure to conform to social expectations is strong. Pressure to conform seems to be particularly intense a. among teenagers and young adults b. in small group settings. 14. What is Groupthink? The process in which members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against the group consensus. may facilitate reaching a quick consensus, but the consensus may also be ill chosen. 15. Be familiar with the Solomon Asch experiment Solomon Asch Experiment, showed that many people are willing to discount their own perceptions rather than go against the group consensus. 16. What are Organizations? A group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted collective action to achieve a common purpose *many types of organizations exist in modern societies, influencing most aspects of our lives. 17. What are formal organizations? A group that is rationally designed to achieve its objectives, often by means of explicit rules, regulations and procedures. 18. What are the characteristics of a bureaucracy? Bureaucracy, a type of formal organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and the existence of written rules of procedure and staffed by full-time, salaried officials. 1.clear cut hierarchy of authority 2.Written rules govern the conduct of officials at all levels of the organization. 3.Officials work full time and are salaried. 4.There is a separation between the tasks of an official within the organization and their life outside. 5.No members of the organization own the materials with which they operate. 19. What are positive and negative aspects of bureaucracies? Positive, 1.efficient way of coping with administrative requirements in large-scale societies. 2. An effective means of organizing large numbers of people, ensuring decisions made are according to general criteria. 3.Discourages favoritism, clients are treated equally. Negative, 1. Inflexible. They are designed to deal with typical cases, may not be able to respond effectively when new situations arise. 2. A tendency for bureaucracies to grow larger, however, more resources and officials do not necessarily result in greater efficiency. 3.Authoritarian. Power tends to concentrate at the top of the organization, hierarchical authority structure encourages oligarchy and discourages democracy. 20. What does it mean to say that bureaucracies are gendered institutions? *Bureaucracies are characterized by occupational gender segregation. *idea of a bureaucratic career was in fact a male career in which women played a crucial supporting role 21. What is an ideal type? A “pure type,” constructed by emphasizing certain traits of a social item that do not necessarily exist in reality. 22. What is Deviance? Actions or beliefs that do not conform to the norms or values held by members of a group or society 23. What is Crime? Actions that contravene the laws established by a political authority.  24. What are Values, Norms, Mores, Folkways,Laws, and Sanctions? Values: abstract ideals held by individuals or groups about what is right, desirable, good, and proper. Norms: rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a range of social situations. Mores: norms that are widely adhered to and have a great social and moral significance (Strictly enforced ). Folkways: norms that guide casual or everyday interaction. Violations of folkways are sanctioned subtly or not at all (not strictly enforced ). Laws: Written rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power. Sanction: a reaction from others to the behavior of an individual or group that is meant to ensure that the person or group complies with a given norm. ( positive or negative ) (formal or informal). 25. How do sociological explanations of deviance differ from biological and psychological explanations? Sociologists study deviance by the distribution of power in society. Biological and Psychological are factors of genetics, brain chemistry or personality traits. 26. Be familiar with the functionalist approaches to deviance of Émile Durkheim and Robert Merton. Emile Durkhiem, viewed deviance as both inevitable and necessary elements of modern society. Robert Merton, deviance and crime is embedded in the structure of American society 27. Be familiar with symbolic interactionist theories of deviance, differential association theory, labeling theory, and control theory. Symbolic interactionist, view crime and deviance as socially constructed (focus on reacts of person conduct) Differential association: criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime. Labeling theory: An approach to deviance that suggests that people become “deviant” because certain labels are attached to their behavior by authority figures. *Primary deviance: actions that cause others to label one as a deviant. *Secondary deviance: an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly Control theory: Views crime as the outcome of an imbalance between impulses toward criminal activity and controls that deter it. 1. attachment 2. commitment 3.involvement 4.beliefs  28. Be familiar with the conflict theory of crime and deviance. crime and deviant behavior are largely a result of power imbalances and social inequalities within a society. Deviance 1. attachment 2. commitment 3.involvement 4.beliefs Crime Initial contact 1.Bail and pre-trial detention 2. Legal representation 3. Court fees and fines 4. Discriminatory laws and policies 29. What are the different types of crime? White collar crime, criminal activity carried out by those in professional jobs. Property crime, larceny, burglary, and motor vehicle theft Violent crime, aggravated assault, robbery, rape, murder, and manslaughter Organized crime, Criminal activities carried out by organizations established as businesses. Corporate crime, Criminal activities carried out by large corporations 30. How is crime documented? 1.Uniform crime reports “UCR” 2.National Crime Victimization  31. What is social stratification, structured inequality, and intersectionality? Social stratification, existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to valued resources *wealth - the value of one’s assets *power - ability to attain one’s goals despite resistance * prestige - respect derived from one’s occupation Structured inequalities: social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure. Intersectionality: perspective that identifies how our multiple group memberships affect us in ways that are distinct from any single group membership. 32. What are slavery, caste systems, and class systems of stratification? Slavery: form of social stratification in which some people are owned as property by others. Caste system: system of social stratification in which one’s social status is determined at birth and held for life. Class system: system of social stratification in which one’s social status is influenced by achieved status as well as ascribed status Social class: a collection of people who occupy a similar economic position in society 33. How do class systems differ from caste systems? *Class systems are fluid. *Class positions are partly achieved. *Class is economically based. *Class systems are large scale and impersonal. 34. What are life chances? A term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person’s opportunities for achieving economic prosperity. 35. Be familiar with the theories of social stratification of Karl Marx and Max Weber. Karl Marx, capitalism and analysis of class Max Weber, class. Status, power 36. Befamiliar with functionalist and conflict theories of social stratification. Functionalist, ensure that the most qualified people, attracted by the rewards society bestows, will fill roles that are most important to a smoothly functioning society Conflict, social inequality exists due to a power struggle between different social groups.  37. Be familiar with Erik Olin Wright’s theory of social stratification. the idea that class is a set of locations that people occupy, and that these locations directly impact people's lives. *Control over capital “investments, money” * Control over the physical means of production “factories, offices, land” *Control over labor power “workers” Capitalist class, all three Working class, none 38. What is a contradictory class location? Positions in the class structure, particularly routine white-collar and managerial jobs that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them. “relationship to authority “ and “possession of skills or expertise” 39. Be familiar with the US class structure. Wealth, money and material possessions held by an individual or group. Income, money received from wages or salaries or earned from investments. Occupation, jobs. Education notes how social class influences consumption, education, health and access to political power. 40. What are the consequences of social class for individuals? May have an impact on the way of living. 41. What is social mobility, intragenerational mobility, and intergenerational mobility? Social mobility, movement of individuals or groups between different social positions. Intragenerational mobility, movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career. Intergenerational mobility, movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another  42. Be familiar with the Gilbert Kahl model of social class? 1.capitalist class, 1% of population, own large businesses, investments, stocks, bonds. 2.upper-middle class, 14%, well paid university educated managers and professionals(mid-to-upper level managers), doctors, lawyers, engineers, architects, and other specialists. Medium-sized business owners. 3.Middle class, 30% of population, lower level managers, teachers, nurses, officers, plumbers. 4.Working class, 30% of population , unskilled factory workers, warehouse workers, retail workers 5.Working poor, 13% of population, low skill, low wage, don't pay benefits , fast food workers, maids, janitors 7.underclass, 12% of population, part time or erratically, depend on public assistance or disability payments. 43. What is absolute poverty and relative poverty? Absolute poverty, Not meeting the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence Relative poverty: Poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in a society 44. What is global inequality? systematic differences in wealth and power across countries. 1.colonialism 2.globalization. 45. What is colonialism and globalization? Colonialism, process where powerful nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories. ​european colonization of Africa, Asia, and the Americas involved the expropriation of land and resources, Globalization, development of social, cultural, political, and economic relationships stretching worldwide. 46. What is gross national income (GNI)? commonly used measure total income earned as a result of a country’s yearly output of goods and services, including income earned abroad. “GNI”, value of a country’s annual output of goods and services divided by the total number of people in the country. 47. What are differences across high Income, upper middle income, lower middle income, and low income countries? The times they were industrialized, living conditions, healthcare / education, overall quality of life high income on top then … (health, hunger and malnutrition, education, literacy, child labor)  48. What factors contributed to the economic development of countries in East and Southeast Asia? 1.hardships, paved way for economic growth 2. Europe and US provided big market for manufacturer 3 Provided ​generous economic aid that fueled investment in new technologies 4. Government made new laws to lower labor lost, economic development “tax breaks”, free education 5. Cultural traditions, shared confucian philosophy, contributed to economic advances. 49. What are emerging economies? Developing countries that over the past few decades have began to develop a strong industrial base. After World War II, *Japan in the 1950s *Hong Kong in the 1960s * Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore in the 1970s *Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and China in the 1980s  50. Be familiar with the following theories of global inequality. 1. neoliberalism and modernization theory Neoliberalism, economic belief that free-market forces, minimizing government restrictions on business, provide greatest economic benefit to the widest range of people. Modernization, A version of neoliberal theory, argues low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment. *World Trade Organization (WTO) *International Monetary Fund (IMF) *Structural adjustment programs: Countries that accept loans are expected to reduce government spending on education and healthcare and privatize state owned resources. 2. dependency theory Poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and by the corporations that are based in wealthy countries. Dependent development: theory that poor countries can still develop economically, only in ways shaped by their reliance on the wealthier countries. 3. world systems theory 4. the theory of global capitalism