Sociology John J Macionis_removed (1).pdf

1 The Sociological Perspective Learning Objectives Remember the definitions of the key terms highlighted in boldfaced type throughout the chapter, including the sociological perspective and sociology’s major theoretical approaches. Understand the sociological perspective an...

1 The Sociological Perspective Learning Objectives Remember the definitions of the key terms highlighted in boldfaced type throughout the chapter, including the sociological perspective and sociology’s major theoretical approaches. Understand the sociological perspective and how it differs from what we think of as “common sense.” What is the importance of a global perspective? Apply sociology’s theoretical approaches to specific social patterns, such as sports. What are the benefits of sociological thinking to your personal life and your career? Analyze sociology in terms of when, where, and why the discipline developed. Evaluate everyday assumptions and common stereotypes, using sociological evidence. Create a more complex and realistic appreciation of your own personal life and social surroundings by using sociological thinking. Can you imagine new and different social arrangements that might develop in our society or in the world as a whole?  CHAPTER OVERVIEW You are about to begin a course that could change your life. Sociology is a new and exciting way of understanding the world around you. It will change what you see, how you think about the world around you, and it may well change how you think about yourself. Chapter 1 of the text introduces the discipline of sociology. The most important skill to gain from this chapter is the ability to use what we call the sociological perspective. This chapter also introduces sociological theory, which helps you build understanding from what you see using the sociological perspective. From the moment he first saw Tonya step off the subway train, Dwayne knew she was “the one.” As the two walked up the stairs to the street and entered the building where they were both tak- ing classes, Dwayne tried to get Tonya to stop and talk. At first, she ignored him. But after class, they met again, and she agreed to join him for coffee. That was three months ago. Today, they are engaged to be married. If you were to ask people in the United States, “Why do cou- ples like Tonya and Dwayne marry?” it is a safe bet that almost everyone would reply, “People marry because they fall in love.” Most of us find it hard to imagine a happy marriage without love; for the same reason, when people fall in love, we expect them to think about getting married. But is the decision about whom to marry really just a matter of personal feelings? There is plenty of evidence to show that if love is the key to marriage, Cupid’s arrow is carefully aimed by the society around us. Society has many “rules” about whom we should and should not marry. In all states but Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Iowa, New York, and the District of Columbia, the law rules out half the population, banning people from marrying someone of the same sex, even if the couple is deeply in love. But there are other rules as well. Sociologists have found that people, especially when they are young, are very likely to marry someone close in age, and people of all ages typically marry others in the same racial category, of similar social class background, of much the same level of education, and with a similar degree of physical attractiveness (Schwartz & Mare, 2005; Schoen & Cheng, 2006; Feng Hou & Myles, 2008; see Chapter 18, “Families,” for details). People end up making choices about whom to marry, but society narrows the field long before they do. hen it comes to love, the decisions people make do not sim- Seeing the General in the Particular W ply result from the process philosophers call “free will.” Soci- ology teaches us that the social world guides all our life choices in much the same way that the seasons influence our choice of clothing. One good way to define the sociological perspective is seeing the general in the particular (Berger, 1963). This definition tells us that sociologists look for general patterns in the behavior of particular people. Although every individual is unique, a society shapes the lives of people in pat- terned ways that are evident as we discover how various categories (such The Sociological Perspective as children and adults, women and men, the rich and the poor) live very Understand differently. We begin to see the world sociologically by realizing how the general categories into which we fall shape our particular life experiences. Sociology is the systematic study of human society. At the heart of soci- ology is a special point of view called the sociological perspective. Watch the video “Sociologists at Work” on mysoclab.com 2 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective We can easily see the power of society over the individual by imagining how different our lives would be had we been born in place of any of these children from, respectively, Kenya, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Peru, South Korea, and India. For example, does social class position affect what women look shows us that factors such as age, sex, race, and social class guide our for in a spouse? In a classic study of women’s hopes for their marriages, selection of a partner. It might be more accurate to think of love as a Lillian Rubin (1976) found that higher-income women typically feeling we have for others who match up with what society teaches us expected the men they married to be sensitive to others, to talk read- to want in a mate. ily, and to share feelings and experiences. Lower-income women, she found, had very different expectations and were looking for men who did not drink too much, were not violent, and held steady jobs. Obvi- Seeing the Strange in the Familiar ously, what women expect in a marriage partner has a lot to do with At first, using the sociological perspective may seem like seeing the social class position. strange in the familiar. Consider how you might react if someone were This text explores the power of society to guide our actions, to say to you, “You fit all the right categories, which means you would thoughts, and feelings. We may think that marriage results simply make a wonderful spouse!” We are used to thinking that people fall from the personal feelings of love. Yet the sociological perspective in love and decide to marry based on personal feelings. But the sociological perspective reveals the initially strange idea that society shapes what we think and do. Because we live in an individualistic society, learning to see how society affects us may take a bit of practice. If someone asked you why you “chose” to enroll at your particular college, you might offer one sociology the systematic study of sociological perspective the special point of of the following reasons: human society view of sociology that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people “I wanted to stay close to home.” “I got a basketball scholarship.” The Sociological Perspective CHAPTER 1 3  Cindy Rucker, 29 years old, recently Although she is only 28 years old, took time off from her job in the Baktnizar Kahn has six children, New Orleans public school system a common pattern in Afghanistan. Greenland to have her first child. (Den.) Area of inset U.S. RUSSIA CANADA GEORGIA KAZAKHSTAN MONGOLIA UNITED UZBEKISTAN NORTH ARMENIA KYRGYZSTAN STATES AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN KOREA TUNISIA LEBANON SYRIA CHINA SOUTH IRAN AFGHANISTAN KOREA JAPAN ISRAEL IRAQ MOROCCO KUWAIT BHUTAN 30° West Bank JORDAN PAKISTAN NEPAL 30° ALGERIA LIBYA BAHRAIN Hong BAHAMAS QATAR DOM. REP. Western Sahara EGYPT SAUDI Kong U.S. BELIZE Puerto Rico (U.S.) (Mor.) ARABIA U.A.E. INDIA MYANMAR Taiwan MEXICO CUBA ST. KITTS & NEVIS OMAN (BURMA) Macao ANTIGUA & BARBUDA MAURITANIA MALI LAOS BANGLADESH JAMAICA HAITI DOMINICA CAPE NIGER ERITREA YEMEN ST. LUCIA VERDE SENEGAL THAILAND PHILIPPINES GUATEMALA BARBADOS CHAD VIETNAM GRENADA ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES GAMBIA BURKINA SUDAN EL SALVADOR FASO NIGERIA DJIBOUTI MARSHALL TRINIDAD & TOBAGO GUINEA-BISSAU CAMBODIA HONDURAS VENEZUELA GHANA ETHIOPIA ISLANDS GUYANA GUINEA CENT. PALAU NICARAGUA French Guiana SIERRA LEONE BENIN AFR. REP. SRI BRUNEI FEDERATED STATES COSTA RICA COLOMBIA CAM. SOMALIA LANKA MALAYSIA OF MICRONESIA (Fr.) LIBERIA TOGO UGANDA MALDIVES PANAMA CÔTE D’IVOIRE EQ. GUINEA RWANDA Singapore 0° GABON KENYA 0° ECUADOR SURINAME SAO TOME & PRINCIPE NAURU DEM. REP. KIRIBATI OF THE BURUNDI REP. OF THE CONGO CONGO TANZANIA COMOROS I N D O N E S I A PAPUA SOLOMON PERU BRAZIL TIMOR-LESTE NEW GUINEA ISLANDS TUVALU ANGOLA SEYCHELLES SAMOA MALAWI ZAMBIA VANUATU FIJI BOLIVIA MADAGASCAR ZIMBABWE NAMIBIA MAURITIUS TONGA BOTSWANA New PARAGUAY Caledonia 150° 120° CHILE MOZAMBIQUE AUSTRALIA (Fr.) SWAZILAND 30° SOUTH 30° LESOTHO AFRICA URUGUAY 20° 0° 20° 40° ARGENTINA NEW 0 500 Km ZEALAND EUROPE ICELAND SWEDEN NORWAY FINLAND 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 60° ESTONIA Average Number of LATVIA RUSSIA Births per Woman DENMARK UNITED LITHUANIA IRELAND KINGDOM BELARUS 6.0 to 6.9 NETH. BEL. GERMANY POLAND A N TA R C T I C A CZECH UKRAINE 5.0 to 5.9 LUX. REP. SLVK. SWITZ. AUS. HUNG. MOLDOVA 4.0 to 4.9 ROMANIA FRANCE SLO. CROATIA BOS. & HERZ. SERBIA 3.0 to 3.9 MONT. BULGARIA ITALY KOS. MAC. ALB. 2.0 to 2.9 40° SPAIN GREECE PORTUGAL TURKEY 1.0 to 1.9 MALTA CYPRUS Window on the World GLOBAL MAP 1–1 Women’s Childbearing in Global Perspective Is childbearing simply a matter of personal choice? A look around the world shows that it is not. In general, women living in poor countries have many more children than women in rich nations. Can you point to some of the reasons for this global disparity? In simple terms, such differences mean that if you had been born into another society (whether you are female or male), your life might be quite different from what it is now. Sources: Data from Martin et al. (2010), Population Reference Bureau (2010), United Nations Development Programme (2010), and Central Intelligence Agency (2011). “With a journalism degree from this university, I can get a Even in the United States, a century ago going to college was not an good job.” option for most people. Today, going to college is within the reach of “My girlfriend goes to school here.” far more men and women. But a look around the classroom shows that social forces still have much to do with who goes to college. For “I didn’t get into the school I really wanted to attend.” instance, most U.S. college students are young, generally between Any of these responses may well be true. But do they tell the eighteen and about thirty. Why? Because in our society, attending col- whole story? lege is linked to this period of life. But more than age is involved, Thinking sociologically about going to college, it’s important to because fewer than half of all young men and women actually end realize that only 7 out of every 100 people in the world have earned up on campus. a college degree, with the enrollment rate much higher in high-income Another factor is cost. Because higher education is so expen- nations than in poor countries (World Bank, 2009; Barro & Lee, 2010; sive, college students tend to come from families with above-aver- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2010). age incomes. As Chapter 20 (“Education”) explains, if you are lucky 4 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective enough to belong to a family earning more than $80,000 a year, White men are more than 12 times more likely you are 50 percent more likely to go to college than someone whose than black women to commit suicide. family earns less than $20,000. Is it reasonable, in light of these 25 facts, to say that attending college is simply a matter of personal 20.5 choice? 20 Suicide Rate 15 12.9 Seeing Society in Our Everyday Lives 10 8.4 To see how society shapes personal choices, consider the number of children women have. As shown in Global Map 1–1, the average 5 5.4 4.9 woman in the United States has about two children during her 1.7 lifetime. In Guatemala, however, the average is about three; in 0 Kenya, about four; in Yemen, about five; and in Niger, the average Men Both Women Men Both Women woman has more than six children (United Nations Development sexes sexes Programme, 2010). Whites African Americans What accounts for these striking differences? Because poor coun- tries provide women with less schooling and fewer economic oppor- Diversity Snapshot tunities, women’s lives are centered in the home; such women also FIGURE 1–1 Rate of Death by Suicide, by Race and Sex, have less access to contraception. Clearly, society has much to do with for the United States the decisions women and men make about childbearing. Suicide rates are higher for white people than for black people and higher for Another illustration of the power of society to shape even our men than for women. Rates indicate the number of deaths by suicide for every most private choices comes from the study of suicide. What could be 100,000 people in each category for 2007. a more personal choice than the decision to end your own life? But Source: Xu et al. (2010). Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), one of sociology’s pioneers, showed that even here, social forces are at work. Examining official records in France, his own country, Durkheim found that some categories of people were more likely than others to Seeing Sociologically: Marginality take their own lives. Men, Protestants, wealthy people, and the unmar- ried had much higher suicide rates than women, Catholics and Jews, and Crisis the poor, and married people. Durkheim explained the differences in Anyone can learn to see the world using the sociological perspective. terms of social integration: Categories of people with strong social ties But two situations help people see clearly how society shapes indi- had low suicide rates, and more individualistic categories of people vidual lives: living on the margins of society and living through a had high suicide rates. social crisis. In Durkheim’s time, men had much more freedom than From time to time, everyone feels like an outsider. For some women. But despite its advantages, freedom weakens social ties and categories of people, however, being an outsider—not part of the thus increases the risk of suicide. Likewise, more individualistic dominant group—is an everyday experience. The greater people’s Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than more tradi- social marginality, the better they are able to use the sociological tion-bound Catholics and Jews, whose rituals encourage stronger perspective. social ties. The wealthy have much more freedom than the poor, but For example, no African American grows up in the United States once again, at the cost of a higher suicide rate. without understanding the importance of race in shaping people’s A century later, Durkheim’s analysis still holds true. Figure 1–1 lives. Songs by rapper Jay-Z express the anger he feels, not only about shows suicide rates for various categories of people in the United States. the poverty he experienced growing up but also about the many Keep in mind that suicide is very rare—a rate of 10 suicides for every innocent lives lost to violence in a society with great social inequal- 100,000 people is about the same as 6 inches in a mile. Even so, we can ity based on race. His lyrics and those of many similar artists are see some interesting patterns. In 2007, there were 12.9 recorded suicides spread throughout the world by the mass media as statements of for every 100,000 white people, more than twice the rate for African how some people of color—especially African Americans living in Americans (4.9). For both races, suicide was more common among the inner city—feel that their hopes and dreams are crushed by soci- men than among women. White men (20.5) were nearly four times ety. But white people, as the dominant majority, think less often as likely as white women (5.4) to take their own lives. Among African about race, believing that race affects only people of color and not Americans, the rate for men (8.4) was about five times higher than for themselves despite the privileges provided by being white in a mul- women (1.7) (Xu et al., 2010). Applying Durkheim’s logic, the higher tiracial society. All people at the margins of social life, including not suicide rate among white people and men reflects their greater wealth just racial minorities but also women, gay people, people with dis- and freedom, just as the lower rate among women and African Amer- abilities, and the very old, are aware of social patterns that others icans reflects their limited social choices. As Durkheim did a century rarely think about. To become better at using the sociological per- ago, we can see general patterns in the personal actions of particular spective, we must step back from our familiar routines and look at individuals. our own lives with a new curiosity. The Sociological Perspective CHAPTER 1 5  Periods of change or crisis make everyone feel a little off bal- ance, encouraging us to use the sociological perspective. The sociol- global perspective the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it ogist C. Wright Mills (1959) illustrated this idea using the Great Depression of the 1930s. As the unemployment rate soared to high-income countries middle-income countries low-income countries 25 percent, people who were out of work could not help but see gen- the nations with the highest nations with a standard of nations with a low overall standards of living living about average for the standard of living in which eral social forces at work in their particular lives. Rather than saying, most people are poor world as a whole “Something must be wrong with me; I can’t find a job,” they took a sociological approach and realized, “The economy has collapsed; there are no jobs to be found!” Mills believed that using what he called the “sociological imagination” in this way helps people under- stand not only their society but also their own lives, because the two The world’s 195 nations can be divided into three broad cate- are closely related. The Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life box takes gories according to their level of economic development (see Global a closer look. Map 12–1 on page 273). High-income countries are the nations Just as social change encourages sociological thinking, sociolog- with the highest overall standards of living. The seventy-two countries ical thinking can bring about social change. The more we learn about in this category include the United States and Canada, Argentina, the how “the system” operates, the more we may want to change it in nations of Western Europe, South Africa, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Japan, some way. Becoming aware of the power of gender, for example, has and Australia. Taken together, these nations produce most of the caused many women and men to try to reduce gender inequality in world’s goods and services, and the people who live there own most our society. of the planet’s wealth. Economically speaking, people in these coun- tries are very well off, not because they are smarter or work harder than anyone else but because they were lucky enough to be born in The Importance of a Global a rich region of the world. A second category is middle-income countries, nations with a Perspective standard of living about average for the world as a whole. People in any Understand of these seventy nations—many of the countries of Eastern Europe, some of Africa, and almost all of Latin America and Asia—are as December 10, Fez, Morocco. This medieval city—a web of narrow likely to live in rural villages as in cities and to walk or ride tractors, streets and alleyways—is alive with the laughter of playing children, the scooters, bicycles, or animals as to drive automobiles. On average, silence of veiled women, and the steady gaze of men leading donkeys they receive eight to ten years of schooling. Most middle-income loaded with goods. Fez seems to have changed little over the centuries. countries also have considerable social inequality within their own Here, in northwestern Africa, we are just a few hundred miles borders, so that some people are extremely rich (members of the from the more familiar rhythms of Europe. Yet this place seems business elite in nations across North Africa, for example), but a thousand years away. Never have we had such an adventure! many more lack safe housing and adequate nutrition (people Never have we thought so much about home! living in the shanty settlements that surround Lima, Peru, or Mumbai, India). As new information technology draws even the far- The remaining fifty-three nations of the world thest reaches of the planet closer together, many aca- are low-income countries, nations with a low demic disciplines are taking a global perspective, the standard of living in which most people are study of the larger world and our society’s place in it. poor. Most of the poorest countries in the What is the importance of a global perspective for world are in Africa, and a few are in Asia. sociology? Here again, a few people are very rich, First, global awareness is a logical extension but the majority struggle to get by of the sociological perspective. Sociology shows us with poor housing, unsafe water, too that our place in society shapes our life experiences. little food, and perhaps most serious It stands to reason, then, that the position of our soci- of all, little chance to improve their ety in the larger world system affects everyone in the lives. United States. The Thinking Globally box on page 8 Chapter 12 (“Global Stratification”) describes a “global village” to show the social shape of the explains the causes and consequences of world and the place of the United States within it. global wealth and poverty. But every chapter of this text makes comparisons between the United States and other nations for four reasons: People with the greatest privileges tend to see individuals as responsible for their own lives. Those at the margins of society, 1. Where we live shapes the lives we lead. As by contrast, are quick to see how race, class, and gender can we saw in Global Map 1–1 on page 4, women create disadvantages. The rap artist Jay-Z has given voice to living in rich and poor countries have very dif- the frustration felt by many African Americans living in this ferent lives, as suggested by the number of chil- country’s inner cities. dren they have. To understand ourselves and 6 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective  Seeing Sociology The Sociological Imagination: Turning in Everyday Life Personal Problems into Public Issues s Mike opened the envelope, he felt the Mills pointed to the power of what he called the ordinary men do not usually know what this A tightness in his chest. The letter he dreaded was in his hands—his job was finished at the end of the day. After eleven years! Years in sociological imagination to help us understand everyday events. As he saw it, society—not peo- ple’s personal failings—is the main cause of poverty connection means for the kind of men they are becoming and for the kinds of history-making in which they might take part. They do not pos- which he had worked hard, sure that he would and other social problems. By turning personal sess the quality of mind essential to grasp the move up in the company. All those hopes and problems into public issues, the sociological imag- interplay of men and society, of biography and dreams were now suddenly gone. Mike felt like a ination also is the key to bringing people together history, of self and world.... failure. Anger at himself—for not having worked to create needed change. What they need... is a quality of mind that even harder, for having wasted eleven years of his In this excerpt, Mills (1959:3–5) explains the will help them [see] what is going on in the life in what had turned out to be a dead-end job— need for a sociological imagination:* world and... what may be happening within swelled up inside him. themselves. It is this quality... [that] may be But as he returned to his workstation to pack When society becomes industrialized, a peas- called the sociological imagination. his things, Mike soon realized that he was not ant becomes a worker; a feudal lord is liqui- alone. Almost all his colleagues in the tech support dated or becomes a businessman. When What Do You Think? group had received the same letter. Their jobs were classes rise or fall, a man is employed or unem- 1. As Mills sees it, how are personal troubles moving to India, where the company was able to ployed; when the rate of investment goes up different from public issues? Explain this provide telephone tech support for less than half or down, a man takes new heart or goes broke. difference in terms of what happened to Mike the cost of employing workers in California. When wars happen, an insurance salesman in the story above. By the end of the weekend, Mike was sitting in becomes a rocket launcher; a store clerk, a 2. Living in the United States, why do we often the living room with a dozen other ex-employees. radar man; a wife lives alone; a child grows up blame ourselves for the personal problems we Comparing notes and sharing ideas, they now real- without a father. Neither the life of an individual face? ized that they were simply a few of the victims of a nor the history of a society can be understood 3. How can using the sociological imagination massive outsourcing of jobs that is part of what without understanding both. give us the power to change the world? analysts call the “globalization of the economy.” Yet men do not usually define the troubles In good times and bad, the power of the soci- they endure in terms of historical change.... ological perspective lies in making sense of our indi- The well-being they enjoy, they do not usually vidual lives. We see that many of our particular impute to the big ups and downs of the soci- problems (and our successes, as well) are not ety in which they live. Seldom aware of the *In this excerpt, Mills uses “man” and male pronouns to apply to all people. As far as gender was concerned, even this unique to us but are the result of larger social intricate connection between the patterns of outspoken critic of society reflected the conventional writing trends. Half a century ago, sociologist C. Wright their own lives and the course of world history, practices of his time. appreciate how others live, we must understand something Schwarzenegger (who came to the United States from Austria) about how countries differ, which is one good reason to pay and Gloria Estefan (who came from Cuba). About 1.4 million attention to the global maps found throughout this text. immigrants enter the United States each year, bringing their skills 2. Societies throughout the world are increasingly intercon- and talents, along with their fashions and foods, greatly increas- nected. Historically, people in the United States took only ing the racial and cultural diversity of this country (U.S. Depart- passing note of the countries beyond our own borders. In ment of Homeland Security, 2009; Hoefer et al., 2010). recent decades, however, the United States and the rest of the Trade across national boundaries has also created a global world have become linked as never before. Electronic technol- economy. Large corporations make and market goods world- ogy now transmits sounds, pictures, and written documents wide. Stock traders in New York pay close attention to the finan- around the globe in seconds. cial markets in Tokyo and Hong Kong even as wheat farmers in One effect of new technology is that people the world over Kansas watch the price of grain in the former Soviet republic of now share many tastes in food, clothing, and music. Rich coun- Georgia. Because most new jobs in the United States involve tries such as the United States influence other nations, whose international trade, global understanding has never been more people are ever more likely to gobble up our Big Macs and Whop- important. pers, dance to the latest hip-hop music, and speak English. 3. Many social problems that we face in the United States are far But the larger world also has an impact on us. We all know more serious elsewhere. Poverty is a serious problem in the the contributions of famous immigrants such as Arnold United States, but as Chapter 12 (“Global Stratification”) explains, poverty in Latin America, Africa, and Asia is both Read “The Promise” by C. Wright Mills on mysoclab.com more common and more serious. In the same way, although The Sociological Perspective CHAPTER 1 7  Thinking The Global Village: A Social Snapshot Globally of Our World arth is currently home to 7 billion people who E 75 percent of the village’s total income is earned may like to think that our comfortable lives are the live in the cities and villages of 195 nations. To by just 200 people. result of our individual talent and hard work, the grasp the social shape of the world on a For most, the greatest problem is getting sociological perspective reminds us that our smaller scale, imagine shrinking the planet’s popu- enough food. Every year, village workers produce achievements also result from our nation’s privi- lation to a “global village” of just 1,000 people. In more than enough to feed everyone; even so, about leged position in the worldwide social system. this village, more than half (603) of the inhabitants 130 people in the village do not get enough to eat, would be Asian, including 194 citizens of the What Do You Think? and many go to sleep hungry every night. These People’s Republic of China. Next, in terms of num- 130 residents (who together have less money than 1. Do any of the statistics presented in this box bers, we would find 149 Africans, 107 Europeans, the single richest person in the village) lack both surprise you? Which ones? Why? 85 people from Latin America and the Caribbean, clean drinking water and safe shelter. Weak and 2. How do you think the lives of poor people in a 5 people from Australia and the South Pacific, and often unable to work, they are at risk of contracting lower-income country differ from those typical just 50 North Americans, including 45 people from deadly diseases and dying. of people in the United States? the United States. The village has many schools, including a fine 3. Is your “choice” to attend college affected by A close look at this settlement would reveal university. About 67 inhabitants have completed a the country in which you live? How? some startling facts: The village is a rich place, college degree, but almost one-fifth of the village’s with a spectacular range of goods and services adults are not even able to read or write. Sources: Calculations by the author based on international data from the Population Reference Bureau (2010), UNESCO for sale. Yet most of the villagers can only dream We in the United States, on average, would be (2010), United Nations Development Programme (2008, 2010), about such treasures, because they are so poor: among the village’s richest people. Although we U.S. Census Bureau (2010), World Bank (2010). women have lower social standing than men in the United expanded awareness. Third, studying sociology is excellent prepara- States, gender inequality is much greater in the world’s poor tion for the world of work. countries. 4. Thinking globally helps us learn more about ourselves. We Sociology and Public Policy cannot walk the streets of a distant city without thinking about Sociologists have helped shape public policy—the laws and regu- what it means to live in the United States. Comparing life in var- lations that guide how people in communities live and work—in ious settings also leads to unexpected lessons. For instance, in countless ways, from racial desegregation and school busing to laws Chapter 12, we visit a squatter settlement in Chennai, India. regulating divorce. For example, in her study of how divorce affects There, despite desperate poverty, people thrive in the love and people’s income, the sociologist Lenore Weitzman (1985, 1996) dis- support of family members. Why, then, are so many poor people covered that women who leave marriages typically experience a in our own country angry and alone? Are material things—so dramatic loss of income. Recognizing this fact, many states passed central to our definition of a “rich” life—the best way to meas- laws that have increased women’s claims to marital property and ure human well-being? enforced fathers’ obligations to provide support for women raising their children. In sum, in an increasingly interconnected world, we can under- stand ourselves only to the extent that we understand others. Sociol- ogy is an invitation to learn a new way of looking at the world around Sociology and Personal Growth us. But is this invitation worth accepting? What are the benefits of By applying the sociological perspective, we are likely to become more applying the sociological perspective? active and aware and to think more critically in our daily lives. Using sociology benefits us in four ways: Applying the Sociological 1. The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of “com- mon sense.” We all take many things for granted, but that does Perspective not make them true. One good example is the idea that we are Apply free individuals who are personally responsible for our own lives. If we think we decide our own fate, we may be quick to Applying the sociological perspective is useful in many ways. First, praise very successful people as superior and consider others sociology is at work guiding many of the laws and policies that with fewer achievements personally deficient. A sociological shape our lives. Second, on an individual level, making use of the approach, by contrast, encourages us to ask whether such com- sociological perspective leads to important personal growth and mon beliefs are actually true and, to the extent that they are 8 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective  not, why they are so widely held. The Sociology in Focus box on of thousands of men and women teach sociology in universities, col- page 10 gives an example of how the sociological perspective leges, and high schools. But just as many professional sociologists sometimes makes us rethink commonsense ideas about other work as researchers for government agencies or private foundations people. and businesses, gathering important information on social behavior 2. The sociological perspective helps us see the opportunities and carrying out evaluation research. In today’s cost-conscious world, and constraints in our lives. Sociological thinking leads us to agencies and companies want to be sure that the programs and poli- see that in the game of life, society deals the cards. We have a cies they set in place get the job done at the lowest cost. Sociologists, say in how to play the hand, however, and the more we under- especially those with advanced research skills, are in high demand for stand the game, the better players we become. Sociology helps this kind of work (Deutscher, 1999). us learn more about the world so that we can pursue our goals In addition, a smaller but increasing number of professional soci- more effectively. ologists work as clinical sociologists. These women and men work, much as clinical psychologists do, with the goal of improving the lives 3. The sociological perspective empowers us to be active partici- of troubled clients. A basic difference is that sociologists focus on dif- pants in our society. The more we understand how society ficulties not in the personality but in the individual’s web of social works, the more active citizens we become. As C. Wright Mills relationships. (1959) explained in the box on page 7, it is the sociological per- But sociology is not just for people who want to be sociologists. spective that turns a personal problem (such as being out of People who work in criminal justice—in police departments, proba- work) into a public issue (a lack of good jobs). As we come to tion offices, and corrections facilities—gain the “sociology advan- see how society affects us, we may support society as it is, or we tage” by learning which categories of people are most at risk of may set out with others to change it. becoming criminals as well as victims, assessing the effectiveness of 4. The sociological perspective helps us live in a diverse world. various policies and programs at preventing crime, and understand- North Americans represent just 5 percent of the world’s people, ing why people turn to crime in the first place. Similarly, people who and as the remaining chapters of this book explain, many of the work in health care—including doctors, nurses, and technicians— other 95 percent live very differently than we do. Still, like people also gain a sociology advantage by learning about patterns of health everywhere, we tend to define our own way of life as “right,” and illness within the population, as well as how factors such as race, “natural,” and “better.” The sociological perspective encourages gender, and social class affect human well-being. us to think critically about the relative strengths and weaknesses The American Sociological Association (2002, 2011a, 2011b) of all ways of life, including our own. reports that sociology is also excellent preparation for jobs in dozens of additional fields, including advertising, banking, business, educa- Careers: The “Sociology Advantage” tion, government, journalism, law, public relations, and social work. Most students at colleges and universities today are very interested in In almost any type of work, success depends on understanding how getting a good job. A background in soci- various categories of people differ in beliefs, family patterns, and other ology is excellent preparation for the ways of life. Unless you plan to have a job that never involves dealing working world. Of course, completing with people, you should consider the workplace benefits of learning a bachelor’s degree in sociology is the more about sociology. right choice for people who decide they would like to go on to grad- uate work and eventually become The Origins of Sociology a secondary school teacher, col- Analyze lege professor, or researcher in this field. Throughout Like the “choices” made by individuals, major historical events rarely the United just happen. The birth of sociology was itself the result of powerful States, tens social forces. Social Change and Sociology Striking changes took place in Europe during the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries. Three kinds of change were especially important in the development of sociology: the rise of a factory-based industrial Just about every job in today’s economy involves working with people. For this reason, studying sociology is good preparation for your future career. In what ways does having “people skills” help police officers perform their job? The Sociological Perspective CHAPTER 1 9  Sociology Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America in Focus ll of us know people who work at low-wage A insurance and she couldn’t afford to pay for a visit ple she worked with were, on average, just as smart, jobs as waitresses at diners, clerks at drive- to a doctor’s office. clever, and funny as those she knew who wrote throughs, or sales associates at discount After working for more than a year at a number books for a living or taught at a college. stores such as Walmart. We see such people just of other low-wage jobs, including cleaning motels Why, then, do we think of low-wage workers as about every day. Many of us actually are such peo- in Maine and working on the floor of a Walmart in lazy or as having less ability? It surprised Ehrenreich ple. In the United States, “common sense” tells us Minnesota, she had rejected quite a bit of “com- to learn that many low-wage workers felt this way that the jobs people have and the amount of money mon sense.” First, she now knew that tens of mil- about themselves. In a society that teaches us to they make reflect their personal abilities as well as lions of people with low-wage jobs work very hard believe personal ability is everything, we learn to size their willingness to work hard. every day. If you don’t think so, Ehrenreich says, up people by their jobs. Subject to the constant Barbara Ehrenreich (2001) had her doubts. To try one of these jobs yourself. Second, these jobs supervision, random drug tests, and other rigid rules find out what the world of low-wage work is really require not just hard work (imagine thoroughly that usually come along with low-wage jobs, Ehren- like, the successful journalist and author decided cleaning three motel rooms per hour all day long) reich imagined that many people end up feeling to leave her comfortable middle-class life to live but also special skills and real intelligence (try wait- unworthy, even to the point of not trying for anything and work in the world of low-wage jobs. She ing on ten tables in a restaurant at the same better. Such beliefs, she concludes, help support a began in Key West, Florida, taking a job as time and keeping everybody happy). She society of extreme inequality in which some people a waitress for $2.43 an hour plus tips. found that the peo- live very well thanks to the low wages paid to the rest. Right away, she found out that she had to work much harder than she ever imagined. Join the Blog! By the end of a shift, she was exhausted, Have you ever held a low-wage job? If so, would but after sharing tips with the kitchen staff, you say you worked hard? What was your pay? she averaged less than $6.00 an hour. This Were there any benefits? Do you think most peo- was barely above the minimum wage at the ple with jobs at Wendy’s or Walmart have a real time and provided just enough income to chance to enroll in college and to work toward a pay the rent on her tiny apartment, buy different career? Why or why not? Go to food, and cover other basic expenses. MySocLab and join the Sociology in Focus blog She had to hope that she didn’t get sick, to share your opinions and experiences and to because the job did not provide health see what others think. economy, the explosive growth of cities, and new ideas about democ- through streets crowded with strangers, they faced a new and imper- racy and political rights. sonal social world. A New Industrial Economy Political Change During the Middle Ages in Europe, most people plowed fields near Europeans in the Middle Ages viewed society as an expression of God’s their homes or worked in small-scale manufacturing (a term derived will: From the royalty to the serfs, each person up and down the social from Latin words meaning “to make by hand”). By the end of the ladder played a part in the holy plan. This theological view of society eighteenth century, inventors used new sources of energy—the power is captured in lines from the old Anglican hymn “All Things Bright and of moving water and then steam—to operate large machines in mills Beautiful”: and factories. Instead of laboring at home or in small groups, work- ers became part of a large and anonymous labor force, under the con- The rich man in his castle, trol of strangers who owned the factories. This change in the system The poor man at his gate, of production took people out of their homes, weakening the tradi- God made them high and lowly tions that had guided community life for centuries. And ordered their estate. The Growth of Cities But as cities grew, tradition came under attack. In the writings of Across Europe, landowners took part in what historians call the Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1632–1704), and Adam enclosure movement—they fenced off more and more farmland to Smith (1723–1790), we see a shift in focus from a moral obligation to create grazing areas for sheep, the source of wool for the thriving God and king to the pursuit of self-interest. In the new political cli- textile mills. Without land, countless tenant farmers had little choice mate, philosophers spoke of personal liberty and individual rights. but to head to the cities in search of work in the new factories. Echoing these sentiments, our own Declaration of Independence As cities grew larger, these urban migrants faced many social states that every person has “certain unalienable rights,” including problems, including pollution, crime, and homelessness. Moving “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” 10 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective  The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was an even greater break with political and social tradition. The French social analyst Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) thought the changes in society brought about by the French Revolution were so great that they amounted to “nothing short of the regeneration of the whole human race” (1955:13, orig. 1856). A New Awareness of Society Huge factories, exploding cities, a new spirit of individ- ualism—these changes combined to make people more aware of their surroundings. The new discipline of soci- ology was born in England, France, and Germany—pre- cisely where the changes were greatest. Science and Sociology And so it was that the French social thinker Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology in 1838 to describe a new way of looking at society. This makes What we see depends on our point of view. When gazing at the stars, lovers see romance, sociology one of the youngest academic disciplines— but scientists see thermal reactions. How does using the sociological perspective change far newer than history, physics, or economics, for what we see in the world around us? example. Of course, Comte was not the first person to think about the tem. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), for example, suggested that soci- nature of society. Such questions fascinated many of the brilliant ety reflected not the perfection of God so much as the failings of a self- thinkers of ancient civilizations, including the Chinese philosopher ish human nature. K’ung Fu-tzu, or Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.), and the Greek philoso- What Comte called the scientific stage of history began with the 1 work of early scientists such as the Polish astronomer Copernicus phers Plato (c. 427–347 B.C.E.) and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.). Over the next several centuries, the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (1473–1543), the Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo (1564–1642), (121–180), the medieval thinkers Saint Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) and the English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton (1642–1727). and Christine de Pisan (c. 1363–1431), and the English playwright Comte’s contribution came in applying the scientific approach—first William Shakespeare (1564–1616) wrote about the workings of used to study the physical world—to the study of society.2 society. Comte’s approach is called positivism, a way of understanding Yet these thinkers were more interested in imagining the ideal based on science. As a positivist, Comte believed that society operates society than in studying society as it really was. Comte and other according to its own laws, much as the physical world operates accord- pioneers of sociology all cared about how society could be improved, ing to gravity and other laws of nature. but their major objective was to understand how society actually By the beginning of the twentieth century, sociology had spread operates. to the United States and showed the influence of Comte’s ideas. Comte (1975, orig. 1851–54) saw sociology as the product of a Today, most sociologists still consider science a crucial part of soci- three-stage historical development. During the earliest, the theological ology. But as Chapter 2 (“Sociological Investigation”) explains, we stage, from the beginning of human history to the end of the Euro- now realize that human behavior is far more complex than the move- pean Middle Ages about 1350 C.E., people took a religious view that ment of planets or even the actions of other living things. We are society expressed God’s will. creatures of imagination and spontaneity, so human behavior can With the dawn of the Renaissance in the fifteenth century, the never be fully explained by any rigid “laws of society.” In addition, theological approach gave way to a metaphysical stage of history in early sociologists such as Karl Marx (1818–1883), whose ideas are which people saw society as a natural rather than a supernatural sys- discussed in Chapter 4 (“Society”), were troubled by the striking inequalities of industrial society. They hoped that the new discipline of sociology would not just help us understand society but also lead to change toward greater social justice. 1 The abbreviation B.C.E. means “before the common era.” We use this throughout the text instead of the traditional B.C. (“before Christ”) to reflect the religious diversity of Comte’s Three Stages of Society our society. Similarly, in place of the traditional A.D. (anno Domini, or “in the year of our Lord”), we use the abbreviation C.E. (“common era”). Theological Stage Metaphysical Stage Scientific Stage 2 (the Church in the (the Enlightenment and the (physics, chemistry, Illustrating Comte’s stages, the ancient Greeks and Romans viewed the planets as Middle Ages) ideas of Hobbes, Locke, sociology) gods; Renaissance metaphysical thinkers saw them as astral influences (giving rise to and Rousseau) astrology); by the time of Galileo, scientists understood planets as natural objects mov- ing according to natural laws. The Sociological Perspective CHAPTER 1 11  In the Plains and Mountain regions, and across the mountainous Appalachian region of the country, population density is very low, so people are more isolated. This isolation contributes to a higher rate of suicide. WASHINGTON NORTH VERMONT MAINE MONTANA DAKOTA MINNESOTA OREGON MICHIGAN NEW HAMPSHIRE IDAHO SOUTH WISCONSIN NEW MASSACHUSETTS DAKOTA YORK WYOMING RHODE ISLAND CONNECTICUT IOWA PENNSYLVANIA NEBRASKA NEW JERSEY NEVADA OHIO INDIANA D.C. DELAWARE UTAH ILLINOIS WEST VIRGINIA MARYLAND COLORADO CALIFORNIA KANSAS VIRGINIA MISSOURI KENTUCKY NORTH CAROLINA TENNESSEE ARIZONA OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS NEW SOUTH MEXICO CAROLINA GEORGIA Number of Suicides ALABAMA per 100,000 People MISSISSIPPI Above average: ALASKA TEXAS 14.0 or more LOUISIANA Average: FLORIDA 10.0 to 13.9 HAWAII Below average: 9.9 or fewer Seeing Ourselves NATIONAL MAP 1–1 Suicide Rates across the United States This map shows which states have high, average, and low suicide rates. Look for patterns. By and large, high suicide rates occur where people live far apart from one another. More densely populated states have low suicide rates. Do these data support or contradict Durkheim’s theory of suicide? Why? Explore the relationship between population density and suicide in your own state and across the United States on mysoclab.com Source: Xu et al. (2010). Sociologists make use of three major theoretical approaches: the Sociological Theory structural-functional approach, the social-conflict approach, and the Understand symbolic-interaction approach. The desire to translate observations into understanding brings us to the important aspect of sociology known as theory. A theory is a state- The Structural-Functional Approach ment of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological The structural-functional approach is a framework for building theory theory is to explain social behavior in the real world. For example, that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote recall Emile Durkheim’s theory that categories of people with low solidarity and stability. As its name suggests, this approach points to social social integration (men, Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmarried) structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure are at higher risk of suicide. gives our lives shape—in families, the workplace, the classroom, and the As the next chapter (“Sociological Investigation”) explains, soci- community. This approach also looks for a structure’s social functions, ologists test their theories by gathering evidence using various research the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole. methods. Durkheim did exactly this, finding out which categories of All social structures, from a simple handshake to complex religious rit- people were more likely to commit suicide and which were less likely uals, function to keep society going, at least in its present form. and then devising a theory that best squared with all available evi- The structural-functional approach owes much to Auguste dence. National Map 1–1 displays the suicide rate for each of the fifty Comte, who pointed out the need to keep society unified at a time states. when many traditions were breaking down. Emile Durkheim, who In building theory, sociologists face two basic questions: What helped establish the study of sociology in French universities, also issues should we study? And how should we connect the facts? In the based his work on this approach. A third structural-functional pio- process of answering these questions, sociologists look to one or more neer was the English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). theoretical approaches as “road maps.” Think of a theoretical Spencer compared society to the human body. Just as the structural approach as a basic image of society that guides thinking and research. parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and various internal 12 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective  Evaluate The main idea of the structural-functional approach social functions the consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole is its vision of society as stable and orderly. The main goal of the sociologists who use this approach, then, is to figure out “what makes manifest functions the recognized and