Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives on Self PDF

Chapter 3: THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Chapter 3 discusses the self from the perspectives of sociology. The theory of Herbert Mead on the Social Self will be explored as well as the different socialization agents. It will also discuss the role of culture in the development of...

Chapter 3: THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Chapter 3 discusses the self from the perspectives of sociology. The theory of Herbert Mead on the Social Self will be explored as well as the different socialization agents. It will also discuss the role of culture in the development of the self, including the contemporary culture which influence the people today. Societies shape the development of their members in very different ways. Each society teaches its concepts, values, and accepted behaviors to its children. This instruction is largely accomplished by social institutions such as the home, school, and church. Mead and the Social Self George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory of the social self, which includes the concepts of self: 'me’, and 'I'. Mead‟s work focuses on the way in which the self is developed. Mead's theory of the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others, responding to others' opinions about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about oneself The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists and psychologists felt that the self was based on biological factors and inherited traits. According to Mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences and activities. According to Mead, three activities develop the self: Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols, gestures, words, and sounds. It allows individuals to take on the “role of the other” and allows people to respond to his or her own gestures in terms of the symbolized attitudes of others. Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. This process of role-playing is key to the generation of self-consciousness and to the general development of the self. “All the world is a stage, and all the men and women merely are players.” Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be  successful at an activity. In the game, the individual is required to internalize the roles of all others who are involved with him or her in the game and must comprehend the rules of the game. According to Mead's theory, the self has two sides or phases: 'me' and 'I.' The 'me' is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The 'me' represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and of society. A phase of the self that is in the past. The “me” represents the expectations and attitudes of others (the generalized other). It has been developed by the knowledge of society and social interactions that the individual has gained. It allows the individual to still express creativity and individualism and understand when to possibly bend and stretch the rules that govern social interactions. One must participate in the different social positions within society and only subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of others and thus become self-conscious. The 'I', therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of the self. The 'I' represents the individual's identity based on response to the 'me’ or the person’s individuality. The 'me' and the 'I' have a didactic relationship. The Socialization Process Humans learn the expectations of society through socialization. By interacting with others, they learn about the norms, cultures, values, etc. Socialization is different based on race, gender and class. Agents of Socialization a. The Family. The family is the basic unit of the society. It the first and primary venue of sociality for children. Families introduce children to the expectations of society. Socialization is different based on race, gender and class. b. The Media. Media is the means where people can gain information as well as entertainment. It may be in the form of print, radio, television and the internet. The average young person (age 8–19) spends 6 3/4 hours per day immersed in media in various forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously. Television is the dominant medium, although half of all youth use a computer daily.  c. Peers. Peers are individuals whom you share one or more characteristics with such as age, social status, economic status, occupation, or education. Interactions with them are usually on a level of equality and are very influential to one’s attitudes, emotions, and behavior. For children and adolescents, peer culture is an important source of identity. Through interaction with peers, children learn concepts of self, gain social skills, and form values and attitudes. d. Religion/Church. Church is a fellowship of individuals believing in one god. It may also refer to a structure where people gather to worship, pray and do religious activities. It is a place where people learn about God and how to live a righteous life. Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents. Very often those who disavow religion return to their original faith at some point in their life, especially if they have strong ties to their family of origin and after they form families of their own. e. Sports. Sports are activities involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes against another or others for entertainment (Oxford Languages). Through sports, men and women learn concepts of self. Men learn that being competitive in sports is considered a part of “manhood.” f. Schools. Schools are institutions dedicated to educate individuals. In schools we learn about essential things for us to be successful in our career, personal and social life. In school, teachers and other students are the source of expectations that encourage children to think and behave in particular ways. Research finds that teachers respond differently to boys than to girls, with boys receiving more of their attention. ===================================================================== Chapter 4: THE SELF AND THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Cultural Anthropology is the study of human culture and society. It is the study of people – their origin, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever those have been found (Ferraro, 2008). Culture on the other hand refers to the major way in which human beings adapt to their environment and give meaning to their lives. It includes human behavior and ideas that are learned rather than genetically transmitted, as well as the material objects produced by a group of people (Nanda and Warren, 2007). How we see ourselves shapes our lives, and is shaped by our cultural context. Self-perceptions influence how we think about the world, our social relationships, health and lifestyles choices, and another people’s well-being. Culture has such a great influence on our lives and is contributing greatly to our self-concept. The influence might either be negative or positive depending on the type of culture we have been brought up in. Culture contributes a great deal in shaping our individual personality or the SELF. The impact of culture on the self is based on our cultural beliefs and values. It also depends on the kind of education we receive or the kind of culture we are growing up into. It is sometimes argued that the concepts of the self, the person, or the individual are culturally variable because people are not always considered to be persons everywhere. Culture is something shared that characterize a group collectively just like identity. The Origins of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society, and each human individual in that society. It considers the genetic and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialization and language, and the types of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through adulthood. Culture play a vital role in the development of an individual. Haviland, et al. (2005) defines culture as “consisting of the abstract ideas, values, and perceptions of the world that inform and are reflected in people’s behavior. Culture is shared by members of a society and produces behavior that is intelligible to other members of that society. Culture are learned rather than inherited biologically, and all the different parts of a culture function as an integrated whole.” Anthropologist Clifford Geertz states that “…culture provides the link between what men are intrinsically capable of becoming and what they actually, one by one, in fact become.” This leads us to the importance of culture in understanding who we are as human beings. Man acquires his knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, and other habits and capacities from his interactions with others in the society where he belongs. We learn our cultural practices and traditions by listening, talking, and interacting with other people. As a child we learn appropriate behavior by observing and copying the behavior of adults. We express our feelings and make judgements of what is right or what is wrong based on our interpretation of adults‟ behavior. This serves to guide our own behavior and perceptions throughout life. Thus, our shared beliefs, values, memories, and expectations bind us together who grow up in the same culture. Anthropology - has explored various meanings of culture, self and identity to better understand the self. - holds a holistic view of human nature. It is considered with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape the self. Contemporary Anthropologist Culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be understood in relation to one another. Who am I? What could be the answer to this question? Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature” referring to genetic inheritance which sets the individual’s potentials. - meaning to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are – from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics “nurture” referring to the sociocultural environment - meaning to all the environmental variations that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationship, and our surrounding culture. Anthropology is providing insights into the nature of self-based on continuous understanding of the basic element of culture The Self and person in contemporary anthropology Contemporary culture refers to current, shared themes, beliefs and values of the society. It includes present practices, trends, as well as political and social beliefs. At present, television, print media, advertisements and internet influence the language, traditions, beliefs, knowledge and even our personalities. We are fond of artists, loveteams and other performers whom we appreciate and (consciously or unconsciously) imitate their way of talking, fashion style, expressions, and even relationships and way of life. Magazines and other print materials tends to present and set acceptable clothing, accessories, cosmetics, etc. Look at the picture on your right. What message does it try to convey to you? The internet provides us with diverse entertainment, allowed us to easily connect with others, provided latest information, etc. Whether we are aware or not, all these affect our self-concept and our individuality as a whole. With this, Clifford Geertz seems to be right when he said, “Culture is also not a force or causal agent in the world, but a context in which people live out their lives.” Two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different societies: 1. egocentric – suggests that each person is defined as a replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others. 2. Sociocentric – the self is viewed as dependent on the situation or setting. In sociocentric, the membership of a person in a particular social group define the boundaries of the self. In egocentric, the self is viewed as autonomous and distinct individual with inherent characteristics. - From the similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people construct their social identities. - The identity toolbox refers to the “features of a person’s identity that he or she chooses to emphasize in constructing a social self”. - Self-identification may be attained by: kinship, family membership, gender, age, language, religion, ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic status - Some characteristics such as kinship, gender and age are almost universally used to differentiate people. - Other characteristics such as ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic status are not always used in every society - Family membership could be the most significant feature to determine the person’s social identity. - Another important identity determinant that is often viewed as essential for the maintenance of a group identity is language. - In other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity. - Personal naming, a universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations establishes a child’s birthright and social identity. A name is an important device to individualize a person and to have an identity. - Changes in one’s identity usually involve rites of passage that prepares individuals for new roles from one stage of life to another. Chapter 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/ EASTERN THOUGHT Lesson 5 discusses the self from the eastern and western thought. It will discuss individualism and collectivism as opposing cultures that influence the development of the self. Certain religious beliefs that are known to have influenced these thoughts will also be explored. Different cultures and varying environment tends to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the eastern vs. western dichotomy wherein eastern represents Asia and western represents Europe and Northern America. Oftentimes we associate western thought with individualism and eastern/oriental with collectivism. In this lesson we learn more of their differences in terms of culture, values, norms, and practices. The Social Construction of the Self in Eastern and Western Thought Individualism Individualist culture is a culture in which the goals of the individual take precedence over the goals of the group. It is characterized by individual autonomy; self-oriented; personal goals; unique and independent; individual privacy; nuclear family; individual rewards (equity); competition Examples of Countries with Generally Individualistic Cultures United States Italy Australia Belgium United Kingdom Sweden Canada Ireland Netherlands Norway Hungary (post-communist generation) Switzerland New Zealand Germany Collectivism Collectivist culture is a culture in which the goals of the group take precedence over the goals of the individual. It is characterized by group unity and harmony; group-oriented; group goals; conforming and interdependent; group belongingness; extended family; equal distribution of reward (equality); cooperation  Examples of Countries with Generally Collectivistic Cultures China Malaysia Taiwan Egypt India Cyprus Pakistan Ghana Bangladesh Nepal Indonesia Argentina Afghanistan Armenia In other words, in an individualist culture, members are responsible for themselves and, perhaps, their immediate families. In a collectivist culture, members are responsible for the group as a whole. In an individualist culture, success is measured by how far one stands out from the crowd. Ex: self-made millionaires, employees of the month, standing out. In a collectivist culture, success is measured by one’s contributions to the group as a whole. Ex: loyalty to company or country, specialized skills, fitting in. Also applies on a personal level. That is, one can personally be collectivist while his or her culture is individualist: Cooperation versus competition. Importance of in-group and out-group members See Table below: Individualism vs. Collectivism Religious Beliefs The following religious beliefs have generally influenced the culture of different countries as well as the self, specifically. Confucianism This can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act according to their relationship with other people, thus it is also focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho 1995, 116). The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein personal needs are repressed for the good of many, making Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society (Ho 1995, 118). Taoism Living in the way of the Tao or the universe. Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they adapt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995, 120) Buddhism This believes that the self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control things, or human-centered needs, thus the self is also the source of all these suffering (Ho 1995, 121). In general, Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bigger context. The person, in striving to a better person, does not create a self above other people or nature but a self that is beneficial to his/her community as well as in order and in harmony within everything else. As for Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is totally taken, not just out of the center of the picture, but out of the whole picture as a whole. END