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Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics UNIT 3 Psycholinguistics Author: Alberto Altamirano P., Mgs.  Index Contents 1. Unit 3: Psycholing...

Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics UNIT 3 Psycholinguistics Author: Alberto Altamirano P., Mgs.  Index Contents 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics............................................................................................................................ 3 Topic 1: The Biology and Psychology of Language.......................................................................................... 3 Objective:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................3 Introduction:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................3 2. Subtopics Information............................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: The nature of language vs. humancommunication.......................................................... 4 2.2 Subtopic 2: Verbal and non-verbal communication............................................................................ 6 Examples of Verbal Communication1........................................................................................................................................................7 Examples of Nonverbal Communication2................................................................................................................................................8 2.3 Subtopic 3: Universal languages: sign language.................................................................................. 9 3. Unit Comprehension Questions.............................................................................................................. 12 1. What is language?........................................................................................................................................................................ 12 2. What pathways does linguistic communication use?................................................................................................. 12 3. What is verbal communication?............................................................................................................................................ 12 4. What is nonverbal communication?.................................................................................................................................... 12 5. Is sign language the same ‘for everyone’?........................................................................................................................ 12 4. Complementary Material........................................................................................................................ 13 Suggested videos:............................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Suggested bibliography:................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Suggested links:................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 5. Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................. 14 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics Topic 1: The Biology and Psychology of Language Objective: To explore the nature of language and human communication, including verbal and non- verbal communication, as well as the significance and characteristics of sign language as a universal language for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Introduction: Language is a fundamental aspect of human communication, enabling the exchange of information, thoughts, and ideas between individuals. It encompasses both verbal and non- verbal forms of expression. The origin and development of language have been subjects of study by various scholars, who have explored its psychological, biological, and philosophical foundations. Language relies on neural networks within the brain and is influenced by external factors such as familial, political, and visual cues. Verbal communication involves the emission and reception of words through vocal and auditory channels, while non-verbal communication encompasses a wide range of channels such as gestures, facial expressions, and body language. However, there is also a universal language that transcends spoken words—sign language. Sign languages have evolved naturally within deaf communities worldwide and serve as complete linguistic systems with their own grammar and vocabulary. They enable effective communication for deaf or hard of hearing individuals, bridging spoken language barriers. In this compendium, we will delve into the features, structure, recognition, educational importance, and technological advancements related to sign language, highlighting its significance in fostering inclusivity and understanding. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: The nature of language vs. human communication Formerly there was ignorance of the origin of linguistic communication, how it was formed, what media intervened, how it evolved and if it was used for political purposes as a consequence of overcoming social classes and races, it is also the case that authors such as Hockett , Saussure, Moreno and Cortés , have studied the origin of language in human beings intertwining different theories with investigations of psychological, biological, and philosophical origins, among others. Determining that human speech depends to a large extent on a neural network located in specific sites within the brain, in relation to innate communicative transmissions emitted and received; this in turn will have external influences, whether familiar, political or visual, which, depending on the territorial environment, will be integrated into the thinking of each individual. In turn, the language according to the mentioned authors uses vocal means and movements of the hands or extremities. Source: https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/2016/11/22/will-chimpanzees-ever-speak/  The human oral apparatus has been modified compared to the chimpanzee in such a way that the variety of sounds is greatly increased, the angle formed by the mouth and the upper respiratory tract have been increased, the pharyngeal space is elongated and the posterior half of the tongue has become the anterior part of the long tract above the vocal cords (Cortés, 1992, p. 43). Language is the ability of the human being to communicate, where personal interaction is carried out that aims to exchange various information with other people, taking into account that both parties have the same knowledge and knowledge of the subject so that there is reciprocity and understanding of their ideas. This is done through verbal or gestural signs. This capacity gives people the opportunity to transmit a message through different signals, in order to reach a connection with individuals and from that to have feedback , therefore, language is fundamental and important in daily life ( Hockett , 1960). The communication that results from the linguistic capacity can take place through vocal and auditory channels with the emission of words produced by the respiratory apparatus and reception of the signals in the ears, by radiated and directed transmission with manifestation of signals arranged in all directions where the receiver can find this signal or the transmission wave ( Hockett , 1960). Saussure's circuit demonstrates that linguistic communication occurs mainly by a spoken emission from the mouth of a person until it reaches the ear and subsequent parietal area of the brain of another individual. These emissions are characterized by having sound and articulatory movement that vibrate in the eardrum, where the brain represents and recognizes the meaning of such sound (Saussure, 1916). Language itself is a process involving mental and physiological realities that occur naturally in people and animals, the same one that has evolved to shape the expression of thoughts in a more extensive way (Darwin, 1871). Linguistic communication is also called an act of speech where the brain is the main generator of a neurological event to later give way to a mental activity that will produce a feeling, an idea, a desire or an intention with a cognitive impulse to emit words (Saussure, 1916). These words in turn can be recorded in the memory of the person or in a text, it should be noted that, apart from symbolizing their theoretical meaning, they also represent a feeling that also reproduces a mental image, what Saussure calls an acoustic image or in the language of signs articulatory image (Saussure, 1916). In the same way, language can be acquired from different sources, whether in an innate, family, school, or entertainment environment, which is why several authors consider that language is obtained naturally as a human biological process with an incidence of a response to language. instinct of the person developing words at the same time that he knows the world, reflecting metalinguistic capacity, that is, the reflection of language (Anula, 1998). 2.2 Subtopic 2: Verbal and non-verbal communication Reflection on language is inherent to the human being because it constitutes the intangible or immaterial heritage of each one of us, in addition to the fact that "we are in language and through it"; that is, language is the support of human activity because it crosses and structures the daily life of each human being in each and every one of its facets. The forms of human communication can be grouped into two large categories: verbal communication and non-verbal communication (Gómez, 2016). Verbal communication refers to the words we use and the inflections of our voice (tone of voice). Nonverbal communication refers to a large number of channels, among which eye contact, facial gestures, facial expression, arm and hand movements, or posture and body distance ( Gomez, 2016). Despite the importance that we usually attribute to verbal communication, between 65% and 80% of our total communication with others is carried out through non-verbal channels (Gómez, 2016). To communicate effectively, verbal and nonverbal messages must match each other. Many difficulties in communication occur when our words contradict our non-verbal behavior (Gómez, 2016). Examples of Verbal Communication1 1. An email with employment information. 2. A face-to-face conversation between two people. 3. A letter sent to a relative by postal mail. 4. A telephone conversation between two friends. 5. A teleconference between a boss and his employee. 6. A chronicle that appears in a newspaper. 7. A novel, a story, a poem, or any other expression within the field of literature. 8. The lyrics of a song. 9. An argument in an oral trial. 10. A post with a message written on a social network. 1 https://www.ejemplos.co/comunicacion-verbal-y-no-verbal/#ixzz7rjhhQl9V Examples of Nonverbal Communication2 1. Greet someone from a distance by raising and waving one hand. 2. Making short and continuous movements with the legs while waiting for important news, which can be a bodily expression that shows anxiety. 3. Applaud after a play has finished, which shows recognition of the work of those involved. 4. Holding hands and rubbing them while going through a stressful situation, which can be an expression indicating nervousness. 5. Give a pat on the back or a hug when someone is sad, which shows support or containment. 6. Support a finger extended transversally in front of the mouth, which manifests a request for silence. 7. Biting your nails in a distressing or stressful situation, which can manifest nervousness, fear or anxiety. 8. Crying, which depending on the context can mean joy (if you cry with emotion) or sadness (if you cry out of anguish). 9. Show a raised clenched fist, which depending on the context and facial expression can signify the celebration of a victory or a threat of a fight. 10. Point out to someone who does not share our language which path to follow by indicating the corresponding direction with a finger. 2 https://www.ejemplos.co/comunicacion-verbal-y-no-verbal/#ixzz7rjhhQl9V 2.3 Subtopic 3: Universal languages: sign language Language can be given in different ways, this means that it can be given through vocal movements or with movements of the extremities (Saussure, 1916). Language fulfills a fundamental and essential function in society, imparting large amounts of information of public interest. This is where the process of transmission and exchange of messages or information between the sender and receiver is carried out. Communication is important because it is the door of social integration, with the aim of interacting with the world; This is how it is not only a right to communicate but an essential process of man, through messages he transmits feelings, expresses his thoughts, ideologies, among others. Likewise, the author makes it known that communication tries to seek different points of view, exchange information, feed on knowledge that may be different from one's own because one does not necessarily have to have the same idea or thought to have a good communication, but knowing how to get the message across using the same symbols or signs. Language is a connection between observable and non-observable means, this means that communication can exist through the issuance of words and through signs, as is the case of people with disabilities in which through the movement of arms and hands an idea, thought or desire is emitted. Similarly, several authors point out that brain activity precedes linguistic ability, attached to the biological functions of the body, such is the case that the respiratory and auditory systems will intervene to achieve linguistic achievement. Sign language is a rich and complex system of communication that utilizes visual gestures, hand shapes, and facial expressions to convey meaning. It serves as a universal language for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing, enabling them to communicate effectively with others regardless of spoken language barriers. Sign languages have developed independently around the world, each with its own unique grammar and vocabulary. In this compendium, we will explore the fascinating world of sign language, its history, features, and importance in fostering inclusivity and understanding. Origins and Development: Sign languages have evolved naturally within deaf communities worldwide, emerging as complete linguistic systems with their own grammar and syntax. They are not mere gestures or pantomimes but fully-fledged languages capable of expressing complex thoughts and emotions (Grosjean, 2008). American Sign Language (ASL), British Sign Language (BSL), Auslan (Australian Sign Language), and many others have distinct roots and regional variations. Features and Structure: Sign languages utilize a combination of hand shapes, movements, and facial expressions to convey meaning. Signs may represent specific words, concepts, or abstract ideas. The hand movements can be directional, representing spatial relationships, and facial expressions provide crucial grammatical markers and convey emotional nuances. Sign languages also incorporate non-manual markers such as head movements, body posture, and eye gaze to express information (Emmorey et al., 2014). Universal Sign Languages: While there is no one universal sign language, certain signs and gestures have emerged as more widely understood across different sign languages. For example, the sign for "mother" in ASL and BSL is quite similar, even though the languages themselves are distinct. These shared signs, known as international signs, facilitate communication between individuals who use different sign languages (Johnston & Schembri, 2010). Sign Language Interpreting: Sign language interpreters play a vital role in facilitating communication between deaf individuals and those who do not understand sign language. They convey spoken language into sign language and vice versa, allowing deaf individuals to participate fully in various domains of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and social interactions. The demand for qualified sign language interpreters continues to grow worldwide (Stone, 2008). Recognition and Legal Status: The recognition of sign language as a bona fide language has been an important step toward inclusivity and accessibility. In many countries, sign language has been officially recognized as the primary language of deaf communities and is legally protected. For instance, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities acknowledges and promotes the use of sign languages to ensure the full participation and inclusion of deaf individuals (United Nations, 2006). Educational Importance: Sign language plays a crucial role in deaf education, promoting language acquisition, cognitive development, and academic success. Bilingual education approaches, where sign language and the written/spoken language of the surrounding community are taught together, have proven effective in empowering deaf individuals to communicate and access education on equal footing with their hearing peers (Marschark & Spencer, 2011). Technological Advancements: Advancements in technology have greatly enhanced access to sign language communication. Video relay services allow deaf individuals to make phone calls using sign language interpreters as intermediaries. Mobile applications and wearable devices have also emerged to facilitate real-time translation between sign language and spoken or written language, further bridging communication gaps (Chen et al., 2014). 3. Unit Comprehension Questions 1. What is language? Language is the human ability to communicate. 2. What pathways does linguistic communication use? Vocal and auditory pathways 3. What is verbal communication? Verbal communication refers to the words we use and the inflections of our voice (tone of voice). 4. What is nonverbal communication? Nonverbal communication refers to a large number of channels, among which eye contact, facial gestures, facial expression, arm and hand movements or posture and body distance could be cited as the most important. 5. Is sign language the same ‘for everyone’? No , sign language differs depending on the locality. 4. Complementary Material The following complementary resources are suggestions so that you can expand the information on the topic worked on, as part of your autonomous learning process: Suggested videos: Nonverbal Communication | Intro to Human Communication | Study Hall: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhhkhpK-3L4 The importance of non-verbal communication. David Matsumoto, psychologist: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jgg_iRs9oFg The Power of Nonverbal Communication | Joe Navarro | TEDxManchester: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLaslONQAKM Suggested bibliography: What is the Nature of Language?: http://www.randwickresearch.com/index.php/rielsj/article/view/357 Suggested links: Speaking of Psychology: Nonverbal communication speaks volumes: https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/nonverbal-communication  5. Bibliography » Annula, A. (1998). The alphabet of psycholinguistics. Bow books. » Cortes, A. (1992). General linguistics The nature of language. Chair Editions » Chen, X., Jin, T., Gao, Y., & Ji, M. (2014). Wearable gesture recognition with inertial sensors. In 2014 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE) (pp. 128-129). IEEE. » Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. » Emmorey, K., Gollan, T. H., McCullough, S., & Weisberg, J. (2014). Language modality and working memory capacity: Evidence for modality-specific networks in deaf signers. Brain and Language, 133, 85-92. » Fernandez, M. (1984). The character of linguistic science. University of Santiago. Gomez, A. (1994). Humanists and the linguistic problem. Editorial Gredos. » Gomez, J. (2016). The communication. Salus UC Magazine. 20(3). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3759/375949531002.pdf » Grosjean, F. (2008). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(2), 131-145. » Hockett , C. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American 203, 88–111 Reprinted in: Wang, William SY. (1982) Human Communication : Language and Its Psychobiological Bases, Scientific American. https://web.stanford.edu/class/linguist197a/hockett60sciam.pdf » Johnston, T., & Schembri, A. (2010). Australian Sign Language (Auslan): An introduction to sign language linguistics. Cambridge University Press. » Moreno, J. (2013). How linguistic communication occurs. Editorial Synthesis. » Marschark, M., & Spencer, P. E. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. » Saussure, F. (1916). Introduction ouch deuxieme language course _ General of Ferdinand de Saussure. Edited by Robert Godel , Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure. » Stone, C. (2008). Toward a practice profession of interpreting. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(3), 335-356. » United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml  Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics UNIT 3 Psycholinguistics Author: Alberto Altamirano P., Mgs.  Index Contents 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics............................................................................................................................ 3 Topic 1: The Biology and Psychology of Language.......................................................................................... 3 Objective:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction:......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Subtopics Information............................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: The nature of language vs. humancommunication.......................................................... 4 2.2 Subtopic 2: Verbal and non-verbal communication............................................................................ 6 Examples of Verbal Communication1....................................................................................................................................................... 7 Examples of Nonverbal Communication2............................................................................................................................................... 8 2.3 Subtopic 3: Universal languages: sign language.................................................................................. 9 3. Unit Comprehension Questions.............................................................................................................. 13 4. Complementary Material........................................................................................................................ 14 Suggested videos:...............................................................................................................................................................................................14 Suggested bibliography:...................................................................................................................................................................................14 Suggested links:...................................................................................................................................................................................................14 5. Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................. 15 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics Topic 1: The Biology and Psychology of Language Objective: To explore the nature of language and human communication, including verbal and non- verbal communication, as well as the significance and characteristics of sign language as a universal language for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Introduction: Language is a fundamental aspect of human communication, enabling the exchange of information, thoughts, and ideas between individuals. It encompasses both verbal and non- verbal forms of expression. The origin and development of language have been subjects of study by various scholars, who have explored its psychological, biological, and philosophical foundations. Language relies on neural networks within the brain and is influenced by external factors such as familial, political, and visual cues. Verbal communication involves the emission and reception of words through vocal and auditory channels, while non-verbal communication encompasses a wide range of channels such as gestures, facial expressions, and body language. However, there is also a universal language that transcends spoken words—sign language. Sign languages have evolved naturally within deaf communities worldwide and serve as complete linguistic systems with their own grammar and vocabulary. They enable effective communication for deaf or hard of hearing individuals, bridging spoken language barriers. In this compendium, we will delve into the features, structure, recognition, educational importance, and technological advancements related to sign language, highlighting its significance in fostering inclusivity and understanding. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: The nature of language vs. human communication Formerly there was ignorance of the origin of linguistic communication, how it was formed, what media intervened, how it evolved and if it was used for political purposes as a consequence of overcoming social classes and races, it is also the case that authors such as Hockett , Saussure, Moreno and Cortés , have studied the origin of language in human beings intertwining different theories with investigations of psychological, biological, and philosophical origins, among others. Determining that human speech depends to a large extent on a neural network located in specific sites within the brain, in relation to innate communicative transmissions emitted and received; this in turn will have external influences, whether familiar, political or visual, which, depending on the territorial environment, will be integrated into the thinking of each individual. In turn, the language according to the mentioned authors uses vocal means and movements of the hands or extremities. Source: https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/2016/11/22/will-chimpanzees-ever-speak/  The human oral apparatus has been modified compared to the chimpanzee in such a way that the variety of sounds is greatly increased, the angle formed by the mouth and the upper respiratory tract have been increased, the pharyngeal space is elongated and the posterior half of the tongue has become the anterior part of the long tract above the vocal cords (Cortés, 1992, p. 43). Language is the ability of the human being to communicate, where personal interaction is carried out that aims to exchange various information with other people, taking into account that both parties have the same knowledge and knowledge of the subject so that there is reciprocity and understanding of their ideas. This is done through verbal or gestural signs. This capacity gives people the opportunity to transmit a message through different signals, in order to reach a connection with individuals and from that to have feedback , therefore, language is fundamental and important in daily life ( Hockett , 1960). The communication that results from the linguistic capacity can take place through vocal and auditory channels with the emission of words produced by the respiratory apparatus and reception of the signals in the ears, by radiated and directed transmission with manifestation of signals arranged in all directions where the receiver can find this signal or the transmission wave ( Hockett , 1960). Saussure's circuit demonstrates that linguistic communication occurs mainly by a spoken emission from the mouth of a person until it reaches the ear and subsequent parietal area of the brain of another individual. These emissions are characterized by having sound and articulatory movement that vibrate in the eardrum, where the brain represents and recognizes the meaning of such sound (Saussure, 1916). Language itself is a process involving mental and physiological realities that occur naturally in people and animals, the same one that has evolved to shape the expression of thoughts in a more extensive way (Darwin, 1871). Linguistic communication is also called an act of speech where the brain is the main generator of a neurological event to later give way to a mental activity that will produce a feeling, an idea, a desire or an intention with a cognitive impulse to emit words (Saussure, 1916). These words in turn can be recorded in the memory of the person or in a text, it should be noted that, apart from symbolizing their theoretical meaning, they also represent a feeling that also reproduces a mental image, what Saussure calls an acoustic image or in the language of signs articulatory image (Saussure, 1916). In the same way, language can be acquired from different sources, whether in an innate, family, school, or entertainment environment, which is why several authors consider that language is obtained naturally as a human biological process with an incidence of a response to language. instinct of the person developing words at the same time that he knows the world, reflecting metalinguistic capacity, that is, the reflection of language (Anula, 1998). 2.2 Subtopic 2: Verbal and non-verbal communication Reflection on language is inherent to the human being because it constitutes the intangible or immaterial heritage of each one of us, in addition to the fact that "we are in language and through it"; that is, language is the support of human activity because it crosses and structures the daily life of each human being in each and every one of its facets. The forms of human communication can be grouped into two large categories: verbal communication and non-verbal communication (Gómez, 2016). Verbal communication refers to the words we use and the inflections of our voice (tone of voice). Nonverbal communication refers to a large number of channels, among which eye contact, facial gestures, facial expression, arm and hand movements, or posture and body distance ( Gomez, 2016). Despite the importance that we usually attribute to verbal communication, between 65% and 80% of our total communication with others is carried out through non-verbal channels (Gómez, 2016). To communicate effectively, verbal and nonverbal messages must match each other. Many difficulties in communication occur when our words contradict our non-verbal behavior (Gómez, 2016). Examples of Verbal Communication1 1. An email with employment information. 2. A face-to-face conversation between two people. 3. A letter sent to a relative by postal mail. 4. A telephone conversation between two friends. 5. A teleconference between a boss and his employee. 6. A chronicle that appears in a newspaper. 7. A novel, a story, a poem, or any other expression within the field of literature. 8. The lyrics of a song. 9. An argument in an oral trial. 10. A post with a message written on a social network. 1 https://www.ejemplos.co/comunicacion-verbal-y-no-verbal/#ixzz7rjhhQl9V Examples of Nonverbal Communication2 1. Greet someone from a distance by raising and waving one hand. 2. Making short and continuous movements with the legs while waiting for important news, which can be a bodily expression that shows anxiety. 3. Applaud after a play has finished, which shows recognition of the work of those involved. 4. Holding hands and rubbing them while going through a stressful situation, which can be an expression indicating nervousness. 5. Give a pat on the back or a hug when someone is sad, which shows support or containment. 6. Support a finger extended transversally in front of the mouth, which manifests a request for silence. 7. Biting your nails in a distressing or stressful situation, which can manifest nervousness, fear or anxiety. 8. Crying, which depending on the context can mean joy (if you cry with emotion) or sadness (if you cry out of anguish). 9. Show a raised clenched fist, which depending on the context and facial expression can signify the celebration of a victory or a threat of a fight. 10. Point out to someone who does not share our language which path to follow by indicating the corresponding direction with a finger. 2 https://www.ejemplos.co/comunicacion-verbal-y-no-verbal/#ixzz7rjhhQl9V 2.3 Subtopic 3: Universal languages: sign language Language can be given in different ways, this means that it can be given through vocal movements or with movements of the extremities (Saussure, 1916). Sign language is a type of language that is given through movements of the extremities, specifically the hands, arms, and facial expressions. Figure 1. People with no hearing problems learning how to use sign language. Image source: https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/one-for-all-city-signs-up-to-communicate-with-the-hearing-impaired/articleshow/58099258.cms Language fulfills a fundamental and essential function in society, imparting large amounts of information of public interest. This is where the process of transmission and exchange of messages or information between the sender and receiver is carried out. Communication is important because it is the door of social integration, with the aim of interacting with the world; This is how it is not only a right to communicate but an essential process of man, through messages he transmits feelings, expresses his thoughts, ideologies, among others. Likewise, the author makes it known that communication tries to seek different points of view, exchange information, feed on knowledge that may be different from one's own because one does not necessarily have to have the same idea or thought to have a good communication but knowing how to get the message across using the same symbols or signs. Language is a connection between observable and non-observable means, this means that communication can exist through the issuance of words and through signs, as is the case of people with disabilities in which through the movement of arms and hands an idea, thought or desire is emitted. Similarly, several authors point out that brain activity precedes linguistic ability, attached to the biological functions of the body, such is the case that the respiratory and auditory systems will intervene to achieve linguistic achievement. Sign language is a rich and complex system of communication that utilizes visual gestures, hand shapes, and facial expressions to convey meaning. It serves as a universal language for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing, enabling them to communicate effectively with others regardless of spoken language barriers. Sign languages have developed independently around the world, each with its own unique grammar and vocabulary. In this compendium, we will explore the fascinating world of sign language, its history, features, and importance in fostering inclusivity and understanding. Origins and Development: Sign languages have evolved naturally within deaf communities worldwide, emerging as complete linguistic systems with their own grammar and syntax. For example, the sign for "mother" in American Sign Language (ASL) is made by forming a C-shape with the dominant hand and placing it on the cheek. The sign for "mother" in British Sign Language (BSL) is made by forming a C-shape with the dominant hand and placing it on the chest. These two signs are similar in meaning, but they have evolved differently over time due to the different cultural and linguistic influences of the deaf communities in which they are used. They are not mere gestures or pantomimes but fully-fledged languages capable of expressing complex thoughts and emotions (Grosjean, 2008). American Sign Language (ASL), British Sign Language (BSL), Auslan (Australian Sign Language), and many others have distinct roots and regional variations.  American Sign Language British Sign Language Source: https://blog.asldeafined.com/2009/07/american-and-british-sign-language-abcs/ Source: https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/language-language- arts/learning-languages/british-sign-language/the-british-sign-language-alphabet-193951/ Features and Structure: Sign languages utilize a combination of hand shapes, movements, and facial expressions to convey meaning. Signs may represent specific words, concepts, or abstract ideas. The hand movements can be directional, representing spatial relationships, and facial expressions provide crucial grammatical markers and convey emotional nuances. Sign languages also incorporate non-manual markers such as head movements, body posture, and eye gaze to express information (Emmorey et al., 2014). Universal Sign Languages: While there is no one universal sign language, certain signs and gestures have emerged that are more widely understood across different sign languages. These shared signs, known as international signs, facilitate communication between individuals who use different sign languages. However, it is important to note that these signs are not always identical and may vary depending on the specific sign language. For example, the sign for "mother" in ASL is made by touching the chin with the index finger, while the BSL sign is made by touching the chest with the index finger. (Johnston & Schembri, 2010). Sign Language Interpreting: Sign language interpreters play a vital role in facilitating communication between deaf individuals and those who do not understand sign language. There are two main types of sign language interpreting: simultaneous interpreting and consecutive interpreting. Simultaneous interpreting is when the interpreter signs what the speaker is saying at the same time as the speaker is speaking. Consecutive interpreting is when the interpreter signs what the speaker has said after the speaker has finished speaking. They convey spoken language into sign language and vice versa, allowing deaf individuals to participate fully in various domains of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and social interactions. The demand for qualified sign language interpreters continues to grow worldwide (Stone, 2008). Recognition and Legal Status: The recognition of sign language as a bona fide language has been an important step toward inclusivity and accessibility. In many countries, sign language has been officially recognized as the primary language of deaf communities and is legally protected. For instance, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities acknowledges and promotes the use of sign languages to ensure the full participation and inclusion of deaf individuals (United Nations, 2006). Educational Importance: Sign language plays a crucial role in deaf education, promoting language acquisition, cognitive development, and academic success. Bilingual education approaches, where sign language and the written/spoken language of the surrounding community are taught together, have proven effective in empowering deaf individuals to communicate and access education on equal footing with their hearing peers (Marschark & Spencer, 2011). Technological Advancements: Advancements in technology have greatly enhanced access to sign language communication. Video relay services allow deaf individuals to make phone calls using sign language interpreters as intermediaries. Mobile applications and wearable devices have also emerged to facilitate real-time translation between sign language and spoken or written language, further bridging communication gaps (Chen et al., 2014).  3. Unit Comprehension Questions 1. What is the difference between verbal communication and non-verbal communication? Verbal communication refers to the words we use and the inflections of our voice (tone of voice). Non-verbal communication refers to a large number of channels, among which eye contact, facial gestures, facial expression, arm and hand movements, or posture and body distance. 2. What is sign language? It is a type of language that is given through movements of the extremities, specifically the hands, arms, and facial expressions. It has developed independently around the world, each with its own unique grammar and vocabulary. It serves as a universal language for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing, enabling them to communicate effectively with others regardless of spoken language barriers. 3. What are some of the benefits of using sign language? Sign language can help to improve communication and understanding between deaf and hearing people. 2. It can be used to communicate with people from different cultures who speak different spoken languages. 3. It can be used to express oneself creatively and artistically. 4. Sign language can be a fun and engaging way to learn about another culture. 4. What are the implications of the recognition of sign language as a bona fide language? Sign language recognition is a step toward inclusivity and accessibility. Deaf individuals have the right to use sign language in all aspects of life. Interpreters are more available and deaf individuals have greater access to information and services. 5. What is the difference between language and communication? Language is a system of symbols and rules that is used to communicate. It can be spoken, written, or signed. Communication is the act of transmitting information from one person to another. It can be verbal, nonverbal, or a combination of both. 4. Complementary Material The following complementary resources are suggestions so that you can expand the information on the topic worked on, as part of your autonomous learning process: Suggested videos: Nonverbal Communication | Intro to Human Communication | Study Hall: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhhkhpK-3L4 The importance of non-verbal communication. David Matsumoto, psychologist: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jgg_iRs9oFg The Power of Nonverbal Communication | Joe Navarro | TEDxManchester: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLaslONQAKM Suggested bibliography: What is the Nature of Language?: http://www.randwickresearch.com/index.php/rielsj/article/view/357 Suggested links: Speaking of Psychology: Nonverbal communication speaks volumes: https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/nonverbal-communication  5. Bibliography » Annula, A. (1998). The alphabet of psycholinguistics. Bow books. » Cortes, A. (1992). General linguistics The nature of language. Chair Editions » Chen, X., Jin, T., Gao, Y., & Ji, M. (2014). Wearable gesture recognition with inertial sensors. In 2014 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE) (pp. 128-129). IEEE. » Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. » Emmorey, K., Gollan, T. H., McCullough, S., & Weisberg, J. (2014). Language modality and working memory capacity: Evidence for modality-specific networks in deaf signers. Brain and Language, 133, 85-92. » Fernandez, M. (1984). The character of linguistic science. University of Santiago. Gomez, A. (1994). Humanists and the linguistic problem. Editorial Gredos. » Gomez, J. (2016). The communication. Salus UC Magazine. 20(3). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3759/375949531002.pdf » Grosjean, F. (2008). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(2), 131-145. » Hockett , C. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American 203, 88–111 Reprinted in: Wang, William SY. (1982) Human Communication : Language and Its Psychobiological Bases, Scientific American. https://web.stanford.edu/class/linguist197a/hockett60sciam.pdf » Johnston, T., & Schembri, A. (2010). Australian Sign Language (Auslan): An introduction to sign language linguistics. Cambridge University Press. » Moreno, J. (2013). How linguistic communication occurs. Editorial Synthesis. » Marschark, M., & Spencer, P. E. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. » Saussure, F. (1916). Introduction ouch deuxieme language course _ General of Ferdinand de Saussure. Edited by Robert Godel , Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure. » Stone, C. (2008). Toward a practice profession of interpreting. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(3), 335-356. » United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml  UNIT 3 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS Author: Altamirano Pazmiño Alberto Fabián  Table of Contents 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics...................................................................................................................... 3 Topic 2: Biological basis: brain processes................................................................................................ 3 Objective:............................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction:.......................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Subtopics Information......................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: The Localization of Language in the Brain................................................................ 4 Where does language come from?....................................................................................................... 4 The Motor Theory of Lateralization..................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Subtopic 2: Knowledge and Linguistic Performance................................................................... 7 3. Unit Comprehension Questions.......................................................................................................... 9 4. Complementary Material.................................................................................................................. 10 5. Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 11 Comprehension Questions Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics Topic 2: Biological basis: brain processes Objective: To explore the localization of language in the brain and examine the relationship between linguistic knowledge and linguistic performance, highlighting the role of grammar and the creative nature of linguistic communication. Introduction: The human brain encompasses distinct regions involved in language processing, encompassing speech production, comprehension, and more. Notably, there are intriguing areas like Broca's and Wernicke's regions, linked to spoken language. While insights into language localization have emerged from brain mapping, the precise location of linguistic knowledge remains mysterious, as language pathologies primarily impact language use rather than internal language sense. Beyond processing, linguistic knowledge intertwines with the mind, highlighting the intricate relationship between brain activity and mental phenomena. Unraveling the brain's role in language is essential for understanding linguistic performance and the creative nature of communication. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: The Localization of Language in the Brain Where does language come from? Since language is a complex function, the existence of a specific center for language is not precisely known, however, there are areas of the brain with diverse components like: speech production, comprehension, meaning, syntax, phonology, writing, etc. German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann mapped the human brain and divided it into 52 distinct areas, each dealing with a unique characteristic. Since the last century, the 44th and 45th area have been identified—without precise limits of the Brodmann cytoarchitectonic map—as Broca’s area dealing with speech production Figure 1: The human brain with functions, described as a specialized Brodmann’s cytoarchitectonic map. area that is active in semantic tasks, such as semantic decision tasks, determining whether a word represents an abstract or a concrete entity, and generation tasks, generating a verb associated with a noun (Cortés, 1992). The left hemisphere of your brain's frontal lobe contains Broca's region. It is crucial for converting your ideas and thoughts into spoken language. The moment before you speak is when Broca's area is determined to be most Source: https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/brodmann-areas-lesions/ active. The motor cortex, another portion of your brain that regulates the movements of your mouth, receives input from Broca's area as well. It bears the name of Pierre Paul Broca, a French physician who made the discovery of the area of the brain in 1861. In addition, area 22, 39 and 40 (the primary auditory cortex, the angular gyrus and intraparietal sulcus respectively) are considered by some to be part of Wernicke's area which are involved in the comprehension of speech. This area was first described by a German neurologist in 1874 by the name of Carl Wernicke, hence the name. The Motor Theory of Lateralization Figure 2: Brain Lateralization This theory states that the brain is divided into left and right hemispheres and that in the left hemisphere, the control of fine motor movements can be found, including those of logical reasoning and speech production which is considered a fine motor movement. Speech activity is "broadly localized" in the left hemisphere of the brain 92-96% of the time for right-handed people. However, it is only 70% located on the left side for left-handed people Source: https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_10/i_10_cr/i_10_cr_lan/i_10_cr_lan.html and about 15% in both sides. Such lateralization is already present before birth (Cortés, 1992). Figure 3: The left brain showing Broca’s and Wernicke’s area If we look not only at the speech activity (which includes writing, reading, comprehension, etc.) but at linguistic knowledge (or "language knowledge") as the ability to make linguistic judgments, the question of the location of the function becomes more elusive. Language pathologies affect the use of language in production or comprehension, this means that in a pure verbal deafness the patient cannot understand the meaning of what he hears, but he knows that the sounds he hears are Source: https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_10/i_10_cr/i_10_cr_lan/i_10_cr_lan.html language. In aphasic disturbances, for example, in agrammatism there is no alteration of the ability to make linguistic judgments, that is, of the internal sense of language (Cortés, 1992). For this reason, the language organ is inscribed within those capacities that, such as thinking, perceiving or imagining, constitute the "internal sense" or the mind and whose location becomes evasive. Linguistic knowledge is thus part of the mind, rather than the brain. As it has been said, language pathologies concern linguistic use, in addition, the animate/inanimate, animal/vegetable, proper/common or name/verb distinction is neuropsychologically contrasted (Cortés, 1992). 2.2 Subtopic 2: Knowledge and Linguistic Performance Linguistic knowledge is represented as a system of constraints, like grammar, which defines all and only the possible sentences of the language (Emonds 1980) According to the innatist theory of language learning, people are naturally able to grasp grammar and that their brains have absorbed most grammatical rules. As a result, humans have the ability to instantly detect and reject grammatically incorrect statements. A native English speaker, for instance, would be able to identify the following as being grammatically incorrect, even if they were unable to explain why (Berko, 1958). Linguistic performance is based on the cognitive and linguistic abilities of each person and consists of the sum of continuities and discontinuities; emphasis on the linguistic diversity of the world's languages; as cultural heritage and not only biologically based systems (Moreno, 2013). Not only spoken languages, but also signed languages, based on the assumption, widely supported by current linguistics, that both types of language are linguistic to the same degree and constitute the two fundamental modalities of human language. Calling as a linguistic act what is called the speech act. The starting point of the circuit of the linguistic act is the brain of one of the people who speaks. There a series of neurological events take place that constitute the physical basis of human mental activity (Moreno, 2013). Here we have several hierarchically related levels with respect to two extremes: the world of mental activity, concepts, ideas, intentions, desires, and the world of neural activity, which is strictly material and is regulated by the laws of matter, of chemistry (Moreno, 2013). The relationship between these two levels, the material and the mental, which arises as an emergent product of the activity of the first, is undoubtedly something extremely difficult to specify. Of course, it seems difficult to reduce intentions or ideas to a mere series of neuronal impulses: it is not possible to reduce the human mind to a simple or complex neuronal interaction (Moreno, 2013). Phenomena of a mental or cognitive nature, although they have a neuronal physical basis , cannot be reduced to it. This is not to say that the material base of the mind, that is, the brain in action , and the ideal base of the mind , that is, ideas, intentions or desires, are two completely different realms that are not relatable. It is clear that this ideal base arises from matter and through the functioning of the brain. Without brain there is no mind. When a person's brain dies, their mind disappears completely and irreversibly: their thoughts, intentions, desires, dreams , hopes or forecasts (Moreno, 2013). Only visual or sound Figure 4: Vocal and signed production of the word ‘house.’ traces of all these things can remain through recordings and written texts. Then reference is made to a mental fact that has material consequences: the association of Source: (Moreno, 2013, p.14) knowledge, concept or idea with a series of neural circuits whose activity gives rise to a sequence of movements of the articulatory organs that produce a certain sound. For example, the idea of 'house' is associated in Spanish with the phonetic expression kása. This means that words can be represented in spoken and signed language where the brain will try to graphically represent the concept of it (Moreno, 2013). Similarly, the word ‘house’ in computer language is expressed by binary, hexadecimal or decimal numbers by exact coding (Moreno, 2013). Therefore, linguistic communication is a creative act both by the person who initiates it and by the person who receives it. These messages can be analog physical signals such as sounds or visual stimuli that can be interpreted linguistically, that is, as formed by a series of discrete constituents such as syllables, words, phrases, and sentences, and that serves as a key for the reconstruction by the other person receiving a certain conceptual content (Moreno, 2013). 3. Unit Comprehension Questions 1. What are the 6 main facts language complexes ? Speech production, comprehension, meaning, syntax, phonology, and writing. 2. What is the significance of Broca's area in language processing? Broca's area, located in the left hemisphere's frontal lobe, plays a crucial role in converting thoughts into spoken language and is responsible for speech production. 3. How does the Motor Theory of Lateralization explain language processing in the brain? It suggests that fine motor movements, such as speech production, are predominantly localized in the left hemisphere of the brain. This theory states that the brain's left hemisphere controls logical reasoning and speech production, which are considered fine motor movements. 4. What does linguistic performance depend on? Of mental activity, of concepts, of ideas of intentions, of desires, and the world of neural activity. 5. What is the basis of knowledge and linguistic performance? They have a neural physical base and the ideal base of the mind that is, the ideas, intentions or desires through the functioning of the brain. 4. Complementary Material The following complementary resources are suggestions so that you can expand the information on the topic worked on, as part of your autonomous learning process: Suggested videos: Language competence, performance, and innateness: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bARgNEG6-MY The brain and language: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zj0yud4wv74 Suggested bibliography: Friederici, A. D. (2011). The Brain Basis of Language Processing: From Structure to Function. , 91(4), 1357–1392. doi:10.1152/physrev.00006.2011 Suggested links: Linguistic knowledge and performance.: https://starproject1.weebly.com/linguistic- knowledge--performance.html 5. Bibliography Berko, J. (1958) ‘The child’s learning of English morphology’ Word 14, 150-177. Cortes, A. (1992). general linguistics The nature of language. Chair Editions Annula, A. (1998). The alphabet of psycholinguistics. Bow books. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. Fernandez, M. (1984). The character of linguistic science. University of Santiago. Gomez, A. (1994). Humanists and the linguistic problem. Editorial Gredos. Gomez, J. (2016). The communication. Salus UC Magazine. 20(3). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3759/375949531002.pdf Hockett , C. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American 203, 88–111 Reprinted in: Wang, William SY. (1982) Human Communication : Language and Its Psychobiological Bases, Scientific American. https://web.stanford.edu/class/linguist197a/hockett60sciam.pdf Moreno, J. (2013). How linguistic communication occurs. Editorial Synthesis. Saussure, F. (1916). Introduction ouch deuxieme language course _ General of Ferdinand de Saussure. Edited by Robert Godel Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure.  UNIT 3 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS Author: Altamirano Pazmiño Alberto Fabián  Table of Contents 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics...................................................................................................................... 3 Topic 2: Biological basis: brain processes................................................................................................ 3 Objective:............................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction:.......................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Subtopics Information......................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: The Localization of Language in the Brain................................................................ 4 Where does language come from?....................................................................................................... 4 The Motor Theory of Lateralization..................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Subtopic 2: Knowledge and Linguistic Performance................................................................... 7 3. Unit Comprehension Questions.......................................................................................................... 9 4. Complementary Material.................................................................................................................. 10 5. Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 11 Comprehension Questions Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Unit 3: Psycholinguistics Topic 2: Biological basis: brain processes Objective: To explore the localization of language in the brain and examine the relationship between linguistic knowledge and linguistic performance, highlighting the role of grammar and the creative nature of linguistic communication. Introduction: The human brain encompasses distinct regions involved in language processing, encompassing speech production, comprehension, and more. Notably, there are intriguing areas like Broca's and Wernicke's regions, linked to spoken language. While insights into language localization have emerged from brain mapping, the precise location of linguistic knowledge remains mysterious, as language pathologies primarily impact language use rather than internal language sense. Beyond processing, linguistic knowledge intertwines with the mind, highlighting the intricate relationship between brain activity and mental phenomena. Unraveling the brain's role in language is essential for understanding linguistic performance and the creative nature of communication. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: The Localization of Language in the Brain Where does language come from? Since language is a complex function, the existence of a specific center for language is not precisely known, however, there are areas of the brain with diverse components like: speech production, comprehension, meaning, syntax, phonology, writing, etc. German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann mapped the human brain and divided it into 52 distinct areas, each dealing with a unique characteristic. Since the last century, the 44th and 45th area have been identified—without precise limits of the Brodmann cytoarchitectonic map—as Broca’s area dealing with speech production Figure 1: The human brain with functions, described as a specialized Brodmann’s cytoarchitectonic map. area that is active in semantic tasks, such as semantic decision tasks, determining whether a word represents an abstract or a concrete entity, and generation tasks, generating a verb associated with a noun (Cortés, 1992). The left hemisphere of your brain's frontal lobe contains Broca's region. It is crucial for converting your ideas and thoughts into spoken language. The moment before you speak is when Broca's area is determined to be most Source: https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/brodmann-areas-lesions/ active. The motor cortex, another portion of your brain that regulates the movements of your mouth, receives input from Broca's area as well. It bears the name of Pierre Paul Broca, a French physician who made the discovery of the area of the brain in 1861. In addition, area 22, 39 and 40 (the primary auditory cortex, the angular gyrus and intraparietal sulcus respectively) are considered by some to be part of Wernicke's area which are involved in the comprehension of speech. This area was first described by a German neurologist in 1874 by the name of Carl Wernicke, hence the name. The Motor Theory of Lateralization Figure 2: Brain Lateralization This theory states that the brain is divided into left and right hemispheres and that in the left hemisphere, the control of fine motor movements can be found, including those of logical reasoning and speech production which is considered a fine motor movement. Speech activity is "broadly localized" in the left hemisphere of the brain 92-96% of the time for right-handed people. However, it is only 70% located on the left side for left-handed people Source: https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_10/i_10_cr/i_10_cr_lan/i_10_cr_lan.html and about 15% in both sides. Such lateralization is already present before birth (Cortés, 1992). Figure 3: The left brain showing Broca’s and Wernicke’s area If we look not only at the speech activity (which includes writing, reading, comprehension, etc.) but at linguistic knowledge (or "language knowledge") as the ability to make linguistic judgments, the question of the location of the function becomes more elusive. Language pathologies affect the use of language in production or comprehension, this means that in a pure verbal deafness the patient cannot understand the meaning of what he hears, but he knows that the sounds he hears are Source: https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_10/i_10_cr/i_10_cr_lan/i_10_cr_lan.html language. In aphasic disturbances, for example, in agrammatism there is no alteration of the ability to make linguistic judgments, that is, of the internal sense of language (Cortés, 1992). For this reason, the language organ is inscribed within those capacities that, such as thinking, perceiving or imagining, constitute the "internal sense" or the mind and whose location becomes evasive. Linguistic knowledge is thus part of the mind, rather than the brain. As it has been said, language pathologies concern linguistic use, in addition, the animate/inanimate, animal/vegetable, proper/common or name/verb distinction is neuropsychologically contrasted (Cortés, 1992). 2.2 Subtopic 2: Knowledge and Linguistic Performance Linguistic knowledge is represented as a system of constraints, like grammar, which defines all and only the possible sentences of the language (Emonds 1980) According to the innatist theory of language learning, people are naturally able to grasp grammar and that their brains have absorbed most grammatical rules. As a result, humans have the ability to instantly detect and reject grammatically incorrect statements. A native English speaker, for instance, would be able to identify the following as being grammatically incorrect, even if they were unable to explain why (Berko, 1958). Linguistic performance is based on the cognitive and linguistic abilities of each person and consists of the sum of continuities and discontinuities; emphasis on the linguistic diversity of the world's languages; as cultural heritage and not only biologically based systems (Moreno, 2013). Not only spoken languages, but also signed languages, based on the assumption, widely supported by current linguistics, that both types of language are linguistic to the same degree and constitute the two fundamental modalities of human language. Calling as a linguistic act what is called the speech act. The starting point of the circuit of the linguistic act is the brain of one of the people who speaks. There a series of neurological events take place that constitute the physical basis of human mental activity (Moreno, 2013). Here we have several hierarchically related levels with respect to two extremes: the world of mental activity, concepts, ideas, intentions, desires, and the world of neural activity, which is strictly material and is regulated by the laws of matter, of chemistry (Moreno, 2013). The relationship between these two levels, the material and the mental, which arises as an emergent product of the activity of the first, is undoubtedly something extremely difficult to specify. Of course, it seems difficult to reduce intentions or ideas to a mere series of neuronal impulses: it is not possible to reduce the human mind to a simple or complex neuronal interaction (Moreno, 2013). Phenomena of a mental or cognitive nature, although they have a neuronal physical basis , cannot be reduced to it. This is not to say that the material base of the mind, that is, the brain in action , and the ideal base of the mind , that is, ideas, intentions or desires, are two completely different realms that are not relatable. It is clear that this ideal base arises from matter and through the functioning of the brain. Without brain there is no mind. When a person's brain dies, their mind disappears completely and irreversibly: their thoughts, intentions, desires, dreams , hopes or forecasts (Moreno, 2013). Only visual or sound Figure 4: Vocal and signed production of the word ‘house.’ traces of all these things can remain through recordings and written texts. Then reference is made to a mental fact that has material consequences: the association of Source: (Moreno, 2013, p.14) knowledge, concept or idea with a series of neural circuits whose activity gives rise to a sequence of movements of the articulatory organs that produce a certain sound. For example, the idea of 'house' is associated in Spanish with the phonetic expression kása. This means that words can be represented in spoken and signed language where the brain will try to graphically represent the concept of it (Moreno, 2013). Similarly, the word ‘house’ in computer language is expressed by binary, hexadecimal or decimal numbers by exact coding (Moreno, 2013). Therefore, linguistic communication is a creative act both by the person who initiates it and by the person who receives it. These messages can be analog physical signals such as sounds or visual stimuli that can be interpreted linguistically, that is, as formed by a series of discrete constituents such as syllables, words, phrases, and sentences, and that serves as a key for the reconstruction by the other person receiving a certain conceptual content (Moreno, 2013). 3. Unit Comprehension Questions 1. What are the 6 main facts language complexes ? Speech production, comprehension, meaning, syntax, phonology, and writing. 2. What is the significance of Broca's area in language processing? Broca's area, located in the left hemisphere's frontal lobe, plays a crucial role in converting thoughts into spoken language and is responsible for speech production. 3. How does the Motor Theory of Lateralization explain language processing in the brain? It suggests that fine motor movements, such as speech production, are predominantly localized in the left hemisphere of the brain. This theory states that the brain's left hemisphere controls logical reasoning and speech production, which are considered fine motor movements. 4. What does linguistic performance depend on? Of mental activity, of concepts, of ideas of intentions, of desires, and the world of neural activity. 5. What is the basis of knowledge and linguistic performance? They have a neural physical base and the ideal base of the mind that is, the ideas, intentions or desires through the functioning of the brain. 4. Complementary Material The following complementary resources are suggestions so that you can expand the information on the topic worked on, as part of your autonomous learning process: Suggested videos: Language competence, performance, and innateness: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bARgNEG6-MY The brain and language: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zj0yud4wv74 Suggested bibliography: Friederici, A. D. (2011). The Brain Basis of Language Processing: From Structure to Function. , 91(4), 1357–1392. doi:10.1152/physrev.00006.2011 Suggested links: Linguistic knowledge and performance.: https://starproject1.weebly.com/linguistic- knowledge--performance.html 5. Bibliography Berko, J. (1958) ‘The child’s learning of English morphology’ Word 14, 150-177. Cortes, A. (1992). general linguistics The nature of language. Chair Editions Annula, A. (1998). The alphabet of psycholinguistics. Bow books. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. Fernandez, M. (1984). The character of linguistic science. University of Santiago. Gomez, A. (1994). Humanists and the linguistic problem. Editorial Gredos. Gomez, J. (2016). The communication. Salus UC Magazine. 20(3). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3759/375949531002.pdf Hockett , C. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American 203, 88–111 Reprinted in: Wang, William SY. (1982) Human Communication : Language and Its Psychobiological Bases, Scientific American. https://web.stanford.edu/class/linguist197a/hockett60sciam.pdf Moreno, J. (2013). How linguistic communication occurs. Editorial Synthesis. Saussure, F. (1916). Introduction ouch deuxieme language course _ General of Ferdinand de Saussure. Edited by Robert Godel Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure.  Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics UNIT 4 Language Development Author: Altamirano Pazmiño Alberto Fabián Table of Contents 1. Unit 4: Language Development........................................................................................................... 3 Topic 1: Processes and representations in language use........................................................................ 3 Objective:............................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Subtopics Information......................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: Finding and Building Words...................................................................................... 4 2.2 Subtopic 2: The perception of language and word recognition.................................................. 6 2.3 Subtopic 3: Interpreting sentences and making connections...................................................... 7 3. Unit Comprehension Questions........................................................................................................ 10 4. Complementary Material.................................................................................................................. 11 5. Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 12 Comprehension Questions Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Unit 4: Language Development Topic 1: Processes and representations in language use Objective: To demonstrate the process of how people understand the building blocks of language. Introduction: Language is a complex and multifaceted system that involves various processes and knowledge types. In this compendium, we will explore three subtopics related to language comprehension and production. The first subtopic focuses on finding and building words, which involves several levels of sound awareness, from phonemic awareness to word awareness. The second subtopic is the perception of language and word recognition, which includes hemispherical specialization, and how the brain perceives and processes language. The third subtopic, interpreting sentences and making connections, is fundamental to language comprehension, as it involves connecting individual words to the overall message of a sentence. We will discuss theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and key findings related to each subtopic to provide an overview of the current understanding of language comprehension and production. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: Finding and Building Words When producing words, a series of mental processes must occur in order to make sense of what is being said. In English, phonological awareness gives a speaker the skills needed to develop language and speech. Think about how language is composed and then lets deconstruct the process. We are programmed to understand sentences and if we break down a sentence, we have words. Words in turn are composed of individual syllables which then can be further broken down into onset and rime. In order to understand words, one must first listen to onset and rime, then build syllables and then words, but words can have semantic differences so contexts is also important in trying to figure out the meaning of each of the words that are being uttered. People must be aware of sound at different levels: phonemic awareness, onset-rime, syllable awareness, and word awareness. Phonemic awareness is the ability to recognize individual sounds (phonemes) from larger chunks (syllables, words) and it is a strong predictor of long-term reading and spelling success. Onset-rime awareness is the ability to recognize the initial-beginning-first sound of a word and its rime. This skill is developed after syllable awareness. Syllable awareness is the ability to hear the parts of words that make up this rhythm. It’s a precursor to onset-rime and phoneme segmentation. Word awareness is the ability to discriminate the words from a sentence. It is a precursor to word segmentation (syllable awareness). The actual task of producing language involves a number of processes which are described in figure 1 below. Figure 1: Processes and knowledge types involved in language productions Image source: Garrett 1980a As a speaker, when someone thinks about saying something, we form an abstract idea in our minds of what we want to say before the words are actually thought, this is conceptualization. Then, once we have a thought and are ready to express our ideas, we must instantaneously survey our mental bank for vocabulary words and grammar expressions to materialize our ideas, this is the formulation aspect. Finally, the actual process of producing the speech act is the articulation phase. 2.2 Subtopic 2: The perception of language and word recognition Language users must perceive the signals that reach the brain (through the eye, the ear, or even the fingers in the case of Braille) as being language rather than non-language, they must recognize them as being in a language that they understand, and they must interpret them as meaningful. These tasks in written and spoken language comprehension need understanding not just of how letters and sounds are employed, but also of authors and speakers, writing and speaking processes, and language structures and units. Hemispherical specialization Humans have clearly been specifically equipped for language as a species. The form and proportions of our vocal tract, as well as our upright posture and the position of our larynx (voice box) in the throat, all contribute to our capacity to generate a rich and well-controlled spectrum of speech sounds. The fact that these speech sounds contain sound frequencies and amplitudes to which our auditory system is highly sensitive aids our hearing for language. Humans have perceptual specialization for language, according to neurophysiological research. This includes hemispherical specialization, in which the two parts of the brain specialize differently. Language abilities are generally (but not always) concentrated in the left hemisphere of the brain. Curiously, and in keeping with the overall pattern of the left hemisphere being attentive to and accountable for the right side of the body, this is connected to a right ear advantage (REA) for most persons. This was established in dichotic listening studies in the 1960s and 1970s. (Studdert-Kennedy, Shankweiler & Pisoni, 1972). The REA simply states that as the right ear is connected directly to the left side of the brain, everything that you hear from that ear will be understood faster than if you were to hear it from your left ear. 2.3 Subtopic 3: Interpreting sentences and making connections Interpreting sentences and making connections are fundamental processes in language comprehension. In psycholinguistics, these processes are studied to understand how humans parse sentences and connect the meaning of individual words to the overall message of the sentence. This compendium will provide an overview of the theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and key findings in interpreting sentences and making connections. Interpreting sentences and making connections is like putting together puzzle pieces. When we listen to or read a sentence, we try to make sense of it by connecting it to what we already know. It's like when we see a puzzle piece with a corner, we know it will fit in the corner of the puzzle. In the same way, when we hear a word, we try to connect it to other words that we already know to understand what it means. For example, if someone says, "I am going to the store to buy some apples," we know that apples are a kind of fruit that we can eat, and we know that we buy them at a store. So, we can put these pieces of information together to understand the sentence. Just like how it's easier to put a puzzle together when we have more pieces, it's easier to understand a sentence when we know more words and have more knowledge about the world. Theoretical perspectives There are several theoretical perspectives that have been proposed to explain the processes involved in interpreting sentences and making connections. One of the most prominent perspectives is the constructionist approach, which posits that language comprehension involves the construction of a mental representation of the meaning of a sentence based on the interaction between the linguistic input and the reader's prior knowledge (Gernsbacher, 1990). Another perspective is the modular approach. The modular approach, proposed by Fodor (1983), suggests that the processes involved in language comprehension are modular and operate independently of each other. According to this approach, the mind is composed of cognitive modules that process specific types of information, such as language, perception, and memory. Each module operates independently of the others and is specialized for a particular function. This approach suggests that language comprehension involves the activation of specific linguistic modules that are responsible for processing different aspects of language, such as syntax, semantics, and phonology. Methods Several methodologies have been used to study interpreting sentences and making connections. One of the most common methodologies is eye-tracking, which measures participants' eye movements as they read or listen to sentences. This method has been used to investigate how readers distribute their attention to different parts of a sentence and how they integrate information across sentences (Tanenhaus et al., 1995). Another methodology is event-related potentials (ERPs), which measure changes in the electrical activity of the brain in response to linguistic stimuli. ERPs have been used to investigate the time-course of language processing and to identify specific neural correlates of different linguistic processes (Friederici, 2012). Several key findings have emerged from studies of interpreting sentences and making connections. One finding is that readers use their prior knowledge to facilitate the comprehension of a sentence (McKoon & Ratcliff, 1992). For example, if a sentence contains a concept that is related to a reader's prior knowledge, they are likely to process that concept more quickly and accurately. Another finding is that readers integrate information across sentences to build a coherent mental representation of the text (Kintsch, 1988). This integration process involves both local coherence, which refers to the connection between adjacent sentences, and global coherence, which refers to the connection between the overall message of the text and the reader's background knowledge. Additionally, studies have shown that individual differences, such as working memory capacity, affect the processes involved in interpreting sentences and making connections (Just & Carpenter, 1992). Interpreting sentences and making connections are essential processes in language comprehension, and they are studied extensively in psycholinguistics. The constructionist and modular approaches provide different theoretical perspectives on these processes, and eye-tracking and ERPs are common methodologies used to investigate them. Key findings include the use of prior knowledge to facilitate comprehension, the integration of information across sentences to build a coherent mental representation of the text, and the influence of individual differences on language processing. 3. Unit Comprehension Questions 1. What is phonemic awareness? The ability to recognize individual sounds or phonemes from larger pieces of information like syllables or words. 2. What are the 3 steps involved in the production of language? Conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. 3. What does hemispheric specialization mean? It means that the brain is divided into two parts, each of which specialize differently, where language abilities are generally concentrated in the left hemisphere of the brain. 4. What are the two theoretical perspectives on language comprehension? The two theoretical perspectives on language comprehension are the constructionist approach and the modular approach. 5. What is the eye-tracking methodology used for in the study of language comprehension? The eye-tracking methodology is used to investigate how readers distribute their attention to different parts of a sentence and how they integrate information across sentences. 4. Complementary Material The following complementary resources are suggestions so that you can expand the information on the topic worked on, as part of your autonomous learning process: Suggested videos: How Do We Interpret Sentences? Parsing Strategies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A-FDN7-gyo David Crystal word and sentence recognition: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qzd6CYtvdM8 Suggested bibliography: Friederici, A. D. (2011). The Brain Basis of Language Processing: From Structure to Function. , 91(4), 1357–1392. doi:10.1152/physrev.00006.2011 Suggested links: Language perception and comprehension: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4389668/ 5. Bibliography Berko, J. (1958) ‘The child’s learning of English morphology’ Word 14, 150-177. Cortes, A. (1992). general linguistics The nature of language. Chair Editions Annula, A. (1998). The alphabet of psycholinguistics. Bow books. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. Fernandez, M. (1984). The character of linguistic science. University of Santiago. Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Friederici, A. D. (2012). The cortical language circuit: from auditory perception to sentence comprehension. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(5), 262-268. Gernsbacher, M. A. (1990). Language comprehension as structure building. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, 99(1), 122-149. Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction- integration model. Psychological Review, 95(2), 163-182. McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (1992). Inference during reading. Psychological Review, 99(3), 440- 466. Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (1995). Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 268(5217), 1632-1634. Gomez, A. (1994). Humanists and the linguistic problem. Editorial Gredos. Gomez, J. (2016). The communication. Salus UC Magazine. 20(3). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3759/375949531002.pdf Moreno, J. (2013). How linguistic communication occurs. Editorial Synthesis. Saussure, F. (1916). Introduction ouch deuxieme language course _ General of Ferdinand de Saussure. Edited by Robert Godel Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure.  Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics UNIT 4 Language Development Author: Altamirano Pazmiño Alberto Fabián Table of Contents 1. Unit 4: Language Development........................................................................................................... 3 Topic 1: Processes and representations in language use........................................................................ 3 Objective:............................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Subtopics Information......................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Subtopic 1: Finding and Building Words...................................................................................... 4 2.2 Subtopic 2: The perception of language and word recognition.................................................. 6 2.3 Subtopic 3: Interpreting sentences and making connections...................................................... 7 3. Unit Comprehension Questions........................................................................................................ 10 4. Complementary Material.................................................................................................................. 11 5. Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 12 Comprehension Questions Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Unit 4: Language Development Topic 1: Processes and representations in language use Objective: To demonstrate the process of how people understand the building blocks of language. Introduction: Language is a complex and multifaceted system that involves various processes and knowledge types. In this compendium, we will explore three subtopics related to language comprehension and production. The first subtopic focuses on finding and building words, which involves several levels of sound awareness, from phonemic awareness to word awareness. The second subtopic is the perception of language and word recognition, which includes hemispherical specialization, and how the brain perceives and processes language. The third subtopic, interpreting sentences and making connections, is fundamental to language comprehension, as it involves connecting individual words to the overall message of a sentence. We will discuss theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and key findings related to each subtopic to provide an overview of the current understanding of language comprehension and production. 2. Subtopics Information 2.1 Subtopic 1: Finding and Building Words When producing words, a series of mental processes must occur in order to make sense of what is being said. In English, phonological awareness gives a speaker the skills needed to develop language and speech. Think about how language is composed and then lets deconstruct the process. We are programmed to understand sentences and if we break down a sentence, we have words. Words in turn are composed of individual syllables which then can be further broken down into onset and rime. In order to understand words, one must first listen to onset and rime, then build syllables and then words, but words can have semantic differences so contexts is also important in trying to figure out the meaning of each of the words that are being uttered. People must be aware of sound at different levels: phonemic awareness, onset-rime, syllable awareness, and word awareness. Phonemic awareness is the ability to recognize individual sounds (phonemes) from larger chunks (syllables, words) and it is a strong predictor of long-term reading and spelling success. Onset-rime awareness is the ability to recognize the initial-beginning-first sound of a word and its rime. This skill is developed after syllable awareness. Syllable awareness is the ability to hear the parts of words that make up this rhythm. It’s a precursor to onset-rime and phoneme segmentation. Word awareness is the ability to discriminate the words from a sentence. It is a precursor to word segmentation (syllable awareness). The actual task of producing language involves a number of processes which are described in figure 1 below. Figure 1: Processes and knowledge types involved in language productions Image source: Garrett 1980a As a speaker, when someone thinks about saying something, we form an abstract idea in our minds of what we want to say before the words are actually thought, this is conceptualization. Then, once we have a thought and are ready to express our ideas, we must instantaneously survey our mental bank for vocabulary words and grammar expressions to materialize our ideas, this is the formulation aspect. Finally, the actual process of producing the speech act is the articulation phase. 2.2 Subtopic 2: The perception of language and word recognition Language users must perceive the signals that reach the brain (through the eye, the ear, or even the fingers in the case of Braille) as being language rather than non-language, they must recognize them as being in a language that they understand, and they must interpret them as meaningful. These tasks in written and spoken language compr