Ancient Greece PDF

## The Island of Crete - Located on the Aegean Sea - Home to a successful trading civilization known as the Minoan civilization - Minoan rulers lived in a vast palace at Knossos. - This palace housed rooms for the royal family, banquet halls, and work areas for artisans. - It also included religious...

## The Island of Crete - Located on the Aegean Sea - Home to a successful trading civilization known as the Minoan civilization - Minoan rulers lived in a vast palace at Knossos. - This palace housed rooms for the royal family, banquet halls, and work areas for artisans. - It also included religious shrines, areas dedicated to the honor of gods and goddesses. - The walls were covered with colorful frescoes-watercolor paintings done on wet plaster. - The frescoes revealed much about Minoan culture by illustrating scenes from daily life. ## Early Greece - By about 1400 B.C., the Minoan civilization vanished. - The reasons are unclear, but it is certain that invaders played some role in its destruction. - These invaders were the Mycenaeans. ## Mycenaean Civilization and the Trojan War - The Mycenaeans ruled the Aegean world from about 1400 в.с. to 1200 в.с. - They were also sea traders whose civilization reached as far as Sicily, Italy, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. - The Mycenaeans learned skills from the Minoans, such as writing. - They also absorbed Egyptian and Mesopotamian customs, which they passed on to later Greeks. - The Mycenaeans are remembered for their part in the Trojan War, which began about 1250 B.C. - The conflict may have started because of economic rivalry between Mycenae and Troy, a rich trading city that controlled the vital straits, or narrow water passages, connecting the Mediterranean and Black seas. - According to Greek legend, the war erupted when the Mycenaeans, or Greeks, sailed to Troy to rescue the kidnapped wife of the king. - The war lasted 10 years, until the Mycenaeans finally burned Troy to the ground. ## Homer and the Great Greek Legends - Much of what we know about the Trojan War and life during this period comes from two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. - These works are credited to the poet Homer, who probably lived about 750 B.C. - The Iliad and the Odyssey reveal much about the values of the ancient Greeks. - The poems' heroes display honor, courage, and eloquence. - In about 1100 B.C., invaders from the north known as the Dorians conquered the Mycenaeans. - After the Dorian invasions, Greece passed several centuries in obscurity. - Over time, a new Greek civilization emerged that would extend its influence across the Western world. ## The Greek City-States - As their world expanded, the Ancient Greeks evolved a unique version of the city-state, called the polis. - The polis consisted of a major city or town and its surrounding countryside. - The acropolis, or high city with its many temples, stood on a hill. - Because the population was small for each city-state, the citizens felt a shared sense of responsibility for their polis. ## Types of Government Evolve - Different forms of government evolved in ancient Greece. - At first, there was a monarchy. - In a monarchy, a hereditary ruler exercises central power. - In time, the power shifted to an aristocracy-or rule by the landholding elite. - As trade expanded and a wealthy middle class emerged, the result was an oligarchy - where power is in the hands of a small, wealthy elite. ## Reforms and Democracy in Athens - In Athens, government evolved from a monarchy into an aristocracy, but discontent spread among ordinary citizens. - Despite government reforms under Solon around 594 B.C., there was still unrest. - This led to the rise of tyrants, or those who gained power by force. - They often won support from the merchant class and the poor by imposing reforms to help these groups. - In 507 B.C., the reformer Cleisthenes made the assembly a genuine legislature, or lawmaking body. - Slowly Athens moved toward a form of limited democracy, or government by the people. ## Forces for Unity Despite divisions among city-states, Greeks shared a common culture. - They spoke the same language, honored the same ancient heroes, participated in common festivals, and prayed to the same gods. - The Greeks, united by their common culture, were victorious in the Persian Wars, which began in 499 B.C. - This victory increased the Greeks' sense of uniqueness. - Athens emerged from the wars as the most powerful city-state in Greece. - Athens formed an alliance, called the Delian League, with other Greek city-states. ## Pericles, Democracy, and War - After the Persian Wars, a golden age began in Athens under the skillful leadership of Pericles. - The Athenian economy and culture thrived and the government became more democratic. - Periclean Athens was a direct democracy. - Under this system, citizens take part directly in the daily affairs of government. - In addition, Athenians served on juries. - A jury is a panel of citizens who make the final judgment in a trial. - Athenian citizens could also vote to banish a public figure they believed was a threat to their democracy. - This was called ostracism. - Many Greeks outside Athens resented the growing Athenian domination. - In 431 B.C., warfare broke out between Athens and Sparta. - This conflict, known as the Peloponnesian War, soon engulfed all of Greece. - Sparta defeated Athens with the help of Persia. - The defeat ended Athenian domination of the Greek world. ## Greek Thinkers, Artists, and Writers - Ancient Greek thinkers used observation and reason to explain events. - These thinkers were called philosophers, meaning "lovers of wisdom." - Philosophers explored many subjects, from mathematics and music to logic, or rational thinking. - They believed that through reason and observation they could discover laws that governed the universe. ## Debating Morality and Ethics - Some philosophers were interested in ethics and morality. - In contrast, the Sophists believed that success was more important than moral truth. - They developed skills in rhetoric, the art of skillful speaking. - Ambitious men could use clever and persuasive rhetoric to advance their careers. ## The philosopher Socrates was an outspoken critic of the Sophists. - He believed in seeking truth and self-knowledge. - Most of what we know about Socrates comes from his student Plato. - Plato set up a school called the Academy where he taught his own ideas. - Like Socrates, Plato emphasized the importance of reason. - Plato's most famous student, Aristotle, also promoted reason as the guiding force for learning. - He set up a school, the Lyceum, for the study of all branches of knowledge. ## Conveying Ideals in Architecture and Art - While Plato argued that every object on Earth has an ideal FORM, ancient Greek artists and architects reflected a similar concern with balance, order, and beauty. - The most famous example of Greek architecture is the Parthenon. - The basic plan of the Parthenon is a simple rectangle with tall columns supporting a gently sloping roof. - Early Greek sculptors carved figures in rigid poses. - Later, they emphasized more natural forms. - Sculptors carved their subjects in a way that showed human beings in what was considered their most perfect, graceful form. ## Literature and the Study of History - In literature, the Greeks also developed their own style. - Some Greek playwrights wrote **tragedies**, or plays that tell stories of human suffering, usually ending in disaster. - Others wrote **comedies**, or humorous plays that mock customs or that criticize society. - History was also an important subject for ancient Greeks. - Herodotus, often called the "Father of History," stressed the importance of research. - He visited many lands to collect and chronicle information from witnesses of actual events. - Thucydides also recorded events as he experienced them. - Both men set standards for future historians. ## The philosopher Socrates was an outspoken critic of the Sophists. - He believed in seeking truth and self-knowledge. - Most of what we know about Socrates comes from his student Plato. - Plato set up a school called the Academy where he taught his own ideas. - Like Socrates, Plato emphasized the importance of reason. - Plato's most famous student, Aristotle, also promoted reason as the guiding force for learning. - He set up a school, the Lyceum, for the study of all branches of knowledge. ## Conveying Ideals in Architecture and Art - While Plato argued that every object on Earth has an ideal form, ancient Greek artists and architects reflected a similar concern with balance, order, and beauty. - The most famous example of Greek architecture is the Parthenon. - The basic plan of the Parthenon is a simple rectangle with tall columns supporting a gently sloping roof. - Early Greek sculptors carved figures in rigid poses. - Later, they emphasized more natural forms. - Sculptors carved their subjects in a way that showed human beings in what was considered their most perfect, graceful form. ## Literature and the Study of History - In literature, the Greeks also developed their own style. - Some Greek playwrights wrote tragedies, or plays that tell stories of human suffering, usually ending in disaster. - Others wrote comedies, or humorous plays that mock customs or that criticize society. - History was also an important subject for ancient Greeks. - Herodotus, often called the "Father of History," stressed the importance of research. - He visited many lands to collect and chronicle information from witnesses of actual events. - Thucydides also recorded events as he experienced them. - Both men set standards for future historians. ## The Socratic Method - Uses questions and answers as steps in a reasoning process that aims to arrive at truths by logically examining the underlying assumptions and implications of statements. ## Ancient Greece’s legacy has been as broad as it is deep, including major CONCEPTS, institutions, and inventions in GOVERNMENT, culture, the arts, mathematics, the sciences, and TECHNOLOGY. ## The Italian Peninsula - Centrally located in the Mediterranean Sea - Benefited the Romans as they expanded. - It also had wide, fertile plains which supported a growing population. ## Ancient Rome and the Origins of Christianity - By about 800 B.C., the ancestors of the Romans, called the Latins, had migrated into Italy. - The Latins settled along the Tiber River in small villages scattered over seven low-lying hills. - There, they herded and farmed. - Their villages in time would grow together into the city of Rome. - Romans shared the Italian peninsula with Greek colonists and the Etruscans-a people who at one time ruled most of central Italy. - The Romans learned from the Etruscans, studying their engineering techniques and adapting their alphabet. - The Romans ousted their Etruscan ruler and founded Rome in 509 В.C. ## Birth of the Roman Republic - The Romans established a new form of government called a republic, in which people chose their own officials. - This form of government would prevent any individual from obtaining too much power. - The main governing body was the senate. - Originally, all 300 members were patricians, or members of the landholding upper class. - Each year, the senators nominated two consuls from the patrician class to supervise the government and command the armies. - Also, in the event of war, the senate might choose a temporary dictator, or ruler with complete control over the government. ## Plebeians, or common people, at first had little influence in the republic. - However, the plebeians fought for the right to elect their own officials, called tribunes. - The tribunes could veto, or block, laws that they felt harmed the plebeians. - Although the senate still dominated the government, the plebeians had gained access to power and their rights were protected. ## Roman Society - The family was the basic unit of Roman society. - The male head of the household had absolute power in the family. - During the early Roman Republic, women had few rights. - Later, they were able to own property and run businesses. - Girls and boys from the upper and lower classes learned to read and write. - The Romans believed in many gods and goddesses, who resembled those of the Etruscans and Greeks. - Numerous festivals were held to honor the gods and goddesses and to ensure divine favor for the city. ## Expansion of Rome - By 270 в.с. Rome controlled most of the Italian peninsula. - This was due mainly to a well-trained army. - The basic military unit was the legion. - Each legion included about 5,000 citizen-soldiers. - As Rome conquered new territories, they treated their defeated enemies well. - As long as conquered peoples accepted Roman rule and obeyed certain laws, the Romans allowed them to maintain own customs and governments. ## Caesar Takes Power Out of the chaos emerged Julius Caesar, a brilliant military commander. - By 50 B.C., after nine years of fighting, he completed the conquest of Gaul-the area that is now France and Belgium. - Rivalry erupted between him and another general, Pompey. - After defeating Pompey, Caesar returned to Rome and forced the senate to make him dictator for life. - He pushed through a number of reforms to help solve Rome's many problems. - Fearing Caesar's growing power, his enemies killed him in 44 B.C. - Caesar's friend, Marc Antony, and his nephew, Octavian, joined forces to avenge Caesar. - However, they soon battled one another for power. - In 31 B.C., Octavian defeated Antony. ## The Roman Empire - With this triumph, the senate gave Octavian the title of Augustus, or “Exalted One.” - Under Augustus, who ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, the Roman republic came to an end and the Roman empire began. - Augustus was its first emperor. - However, social and economic problems hid beneath the general prosperity. - In the A.D. 200s, the Roman empire began to weaken. - Rome suffered political and economic turmoil and a decline in traditional values. - The oppressive government and corrupt upper class generated hostility among the lower classes. ## The Empire is Divided - In 284, the emperor Diocletian set out to restore order. - He divided the empire into two parts. - He appointed a co-emperor to rule the western provinces, and he controlled the eastern part, known as the Byzantine Empire. - To slow inflation, Diocletian fixed the prices of many goods. - When the emperor Constantine came into power, he continued Diocletian's reforms. - In addition, he granted toleration to Christians and moved the empire's capital to Constantinople, making the eastern empire the center of power. ## The Decline of Rome - These reforms failed to stop the long-term decline of the empire. - Nomadic people from Asia, called Huns, were forcing Germanic peoples into Roman territory. - By 410, Rome itself was under attack. - By then, the empire had surrendered much of its western territories to invaders. - There were several reasons for Rome's decline, but the primary reason was the many invasions. - Rome's legions were not as strong or as loyal as they had been. - As Roman citizens suffered the consequences of a declining empire, patriotism diminished. - The Roman empire finally "fell" in 476, when Germanic invaders captured Rome and ousted the emperor. ## Greek works in the arts and sciences set a standard for later Europeans. - Greek ideas about law, freedom, justice, and government continue to influence political thinking today. ## The Pont du Gard in France was a Roman AQUEDUCT built in 19 BC. - The three tiers of arches rise about 155 feet (47 m). ## In general, the Romans entrusted the Greeks, who were citizens of the empire, with scientific research. - Ptolemy, the astronomer-mathematician, proposed his theory that Earth was at the center of the universe. - This mistaken idea was accepted in the Western world for nearly 1,500 years. ## The Legacy of Roman Law - Rome was committed to the rule of law and to justice. - To protect the empire and its citizens, Rome developed civil law. - As Rome expanded, the law of nations was established. - This law applied to both citizens and non-citizens of Rome. - As Rome extended citizenship across the empire, the two systems merged. - As Roman law developed, certain basic principles evolved. - Many of these principles are familiar to Americans today. - Among the most important was that an accused person is presumed innocent until proven guilty. - A second principle ensured that the accused was allowed to face the accuser and mount a defense. - A third idea was that guilt must be firmly established using solid evidence. - Still another idea was that judges interpret the laws and make fair decisions. ## The Origins of Christianity Early in the Pax Romana, Christianity arose in a distant corner of the Roman empire. - It grew from a small sect to become the dominant religion of the empire. ## Diverse Religions in the Empire - Within the vast Roman empire, numerous religious beliefs thrived. - Generally, Rome tolerated these varied religious traditions. - As long as citizens showed loyalty by honoring Roman gods and accepting the divinity of the emperor, they were allowed to worship as they pleased. ## Jews in the empire were excused from worshiping Roman gods. - However, over time, some Jewish conservatives called on Jews to revolt against Rome. - Some Jews also believed a messiah, or anointed king sent by God, would appear and lead them to freedom. - As rebellion grew, the Romans crushed the rebels, and eventually destroyed the Jewish temple. - Thousands of Jews were killed in the fighting and others were enslaved. - However, teachers called rabbis preserved Jewish law. ## Life and Teachings of Jesus - Christianity developed as people began to follow the teachings of Jesus. - Almost all the information we have about the life of Jesus comes from the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. - According to the Gospels, Jesus was born into a Jewish family in Bethlehem around 4 B.C. - At the age of 30, the Gospels relate that Jesus began preaching to large crowds. - He recruited 12 apostles, or close followers, to help spread his message. - Jesus' teachings were firmly rooted in Jewish tradition. - Jesus believed in one God, accepted the Ten Commandments, and preached obedience to the laws of Moses. - However, Jesus also preached new beliefs. - According to his followers, he called himself the Son of God. - Many people believed Jesus was the long-anticipated messiah. - Jesus proclaimed that his mission was to bring spiritual salvation and eternal life to anyone who believed in him. - He emphasized God's love and the need for justice, morality, forgiveness, and service to others. - According to the Gospels, Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples and condemned to death by crucifixion, a method of execution frequently used by the Romans. - The Gospels report that he was resurrected, or raised from the dead. - The Gospels go on to say that Jesus, after commanding his disciples to spread his teachings to all people, ascended into heaven. ## The senate was the governing vehicle of Roman society. - Issues were addressed and debated by its 300 members. - Attending the theater was a popular pastime in Rome. - Here, actors don costumes and masks before a performance. - Roman architecture emphasized grandeur. - The Colosseum was a public arena that stood 12 to 15 stories high (159 feet) and could hold as many as 50,000 spectators. ## In 1071, Seljuk Turks conquered Byzantine lands in Asia Minor and then moved into the Holy Land, the lands were Jesus had lived. - Pope Urban II launched the Crusade to win control of the Holy Land. - Only the First Crusade was a success for European crusaders, who captured Jerusalem in 1099. - In the Second Crusade, Jerusalem fell to the Muslim leader Saladin. - Crusaders failed to take Jerusalem in the Third Crusade, but Saladin agreed to reopen the city to Christian pilgrims. - By the Fourth Crusade in 1202, knights were fighting other Christians to help Venice against its Byzantine trade rivals. - The Byzantines lost control of trade and much of their wealth. - In 1453, Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul. ## Impact of the Crusades - The Crusades left a legacy of distrust in the Middle East and Europe. - They also produced vast changes in society. - In the Middle East, Muslims began to reunify. - In Europe, trade increased. - The Crusades encouraged the growth of a money economy, which contributed to the decline of serfdom. - Monarchs gained strength as they levied taxes to support the Crusades and to strengthen the papacy. ## The Roman Empire is viewed as a key part of European history, and as a result of its influence on the West, Romans continue to be studied today. ## The Late Middle Ages: A Time of Upheaval - Europe faced a series of devastating crises that began in the 1300s. - First, widespread crop failures brought famine and starvation. - Then plague and war ravaged populations. - Europe eventually recovered from these disasters. - Still, the upheavals marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modem age. ## The Black Death - In the mid-1300s a deadly disease called bubonic plague, or the Black Death, reached Europe by way of trading ships from the east. - It was spread by fleas carried by rats. - Eventually, the epidemic killed one-third of all Europeans. ## The Hundred Years’ War - Between 1337 and 1453, England and France fought a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years’ War. - English rulers had battled for centuries to hold on to the French lands of their Norman ancestors. - But French kings were intent on extending their own power in France. - When Edward III of England claimed the French crown in 1337, war erupted anew between these rival powers. ## The oasis of Mecca was an important religious site with a major temple dedicated to pagan gods and goddesses. - Its religious significance helped make it a thriving merchant center. ## The Muslim World and Africa - In A.D. 570, Muhammad was born in Mecca-a trading and religious center. - Muhammad worked among nomadic herders called Bedouins. - Later, he became a successful merchant and decided to marry at 25. - He was known for his honesty in business and devotion to his family. ## The Origins of Islam - Muhammad the Messenger: Muhammad often meditated on the moral ills of Meccan society, including greed. - According to Muslim belief, Muhammad became a prophet at 40 when he was asked by an angel to become God's messenger. - When he began teaching, a few listened, but others opposed him with threats. - In 622, he and his followers fled Mecca for Yathrib, on a journey called the hijra. - Later, Yathrib was called Medina. - In Medina, thousands adopted Islam and formed strong, peaceful communities. - When Meccan leaders grew hostile, Muslims defeated them in battle. - Muhammad returned to Mecca in 630, where the Kaaba, which Muhammad dedicated to God (Allah), became the holiest Islamic site. - Muhammad died in 632. ## Teachings of Islam - The sacred text of Islam is the Quran. - To Muslims, the Quran contains the sacred word of God as revealed to Muhammad. - It is the final authority on all matters discussed in the text. - The Quran teaches about what Muslims believe to be God's will and provides a guide to life. - Its ethical standards emphasize honesty, generosity, and social justice. - Muslims believe that priests are not necessary to mediate between people and God. - Muslims gather in mosques to pray. - All observant Muslims perform five basic duties, known as the Five Pillars of Islam: declaring faith, praying five times daily, giving charity to the poor, fasting during their holy month, and making the hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, if a person is able. - Because Jews and Christians worship the same God and study what are considered God's earlier revelations, Muslims call them "People of the Book." - Although Jews and Christians did not have the same rights as Muslims in early Muslim societies, and often faced burdensome taxes and restrictions, they were to a limited degree able to practice their religions. ## Islam as a Way of Life - The Sharia is a body of laws that interprets the Quran and applies religious principles to legal situations. - According to the Quran, women are spiritually equal to men but have different roles. - In different places, Muslims interpret women's roles and rights differently. - In some cases, Muslims adopted practices of conquered peoples, such as requiring upper-class women to wear veils. ## A Muslim Empire - In 632, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, or successor to Muhammad. - He converted all Arab tribes to Islam and united them under his leadership. - Once united, the Arabs defeated the Persian empire and parts of the Byzantine empire. ## Umayyad Caliphs Create an Arab Empire - In the 700s, a powerful Meccan clan set up the Sunni Umayyad caliphate. - They directed conquests that extended Muslim rule from Spain to the Indus River Valley. - Their empire lasted until 750. - The Muslims brought many people under their rule. - Muslim leaders imposed a special tax on non-Muslims, but Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians could worship and some held important positions. - Many people converted to Islam. ## Changes Under the Abbasids - However, the Umayyads later faced economic tensions and opposition from those who did not have the same privileges as Muslims. - After capturing Damascus in 750, with strong support from Shiites and non-Arabs, Abu al-Abbas founded the Abbasid dynasty. - The Abbasids ended conquests and supported education and learning. - They enjoyed a golden age, with a more efficient government and a beautiful new capital, Baghdad, in the former Persian empire. - They allowed Persian officials to hold important government offices, and Persian traditions to influence the caliphate. - Mosques with minarets, or slender towers, graced the cities, and markets sold goods from far-off lands. ## In Spain, one of the Umayyads established a separate state. - Muslims ruled parts of Spain until 1492. - They were tolerant of other religions, supported scholars, and constructed grand buildings. - As the empire declined, independent dynasties took power. - Seljuk Turks gained power and their sultan, or ruler, controlled Baghdad by 1055, keeping the Abbasid caliph as a figurehead. - Beginning in 1216, the Mongols attacked across southwest Asia. - In 1258, they burned and looted Baghdad, ending the Abbasid dynasty. ## Storytellers often used short anecdotes to entertain people. - In architecture, buildings reflected Byzantine influences, and mosques included domes and minarets. - Muslim artists also used calligraphy, the art of beautiful handwriting, for decoration on buildings and in books. ## An Emphasis on Knowledge - Muslims made great strides in education. - Both boys and girls were educated so they could study the Quran. - Several cities supported learning centers with vast libraries. - There, scholars translated Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist texts. - Known in Europe as Averrões, the philosopher Ibn Rushd believed that knowledge should meet the standards of reason. - Another Muslim thinker, Ibn Khaldun, studied history scientifically and advised others in avoiding errors. - In mathematics, al-Khwarizmi pioneered the study of algebra. - Muhammad al-Razi, chief physician in the hospital at Baghdad, wrote books on diseases and medical practices. - Ibn Sina, a famous Persian physician, compiled an encyclopedia of medical knowledge. - Both doctors' works guided medical study in Europe for 500 years. - Other physicians improved ways to save eyesight and mix medicines. ## The Byzantine Empire - As German invaders pounded Rome in the west, the emperor Constantine and his successors shifted their base to the eastern Mediterranean. - Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. - Commanding key trade routes linking Europe and Asia, Constantinople grew wealthy from trade. - In 330, Constantine made Constantinople the new capital of the Roman empire. - In time, the eastern Roman empire became known as the Byzantine empire. ## The Byzantine Empire Reached its Peak Under the Emperor Justinian. - With the help of his wife, Theodora, Justinian ruled as an autocrat, with complete authority. - After a fire in 532, Justinian made Constantinople even grander. - One of his most important achievements was rebuilding the church of Hagia Sophia. - Under Justinian, Byzantine armies reconquered North Africa and parts of southern Europe. - However, these victories were only temporary, as Justinian’s successors later lost these lands. - Justinian also had a commission collect and organize the laws of Rome. - This collection, which had a strong impact on future monarchs and legal thinkers, became known as Justinian’s Code. - It helped unify the empire. ## Germanic Tribes Dominate Western Europe - After the western Roman empire fell, Western Europe was cut off from advanced cultures in Asia, it was overrun by invaders, and divided. - The centralized Roman state and its powerful military were no longer available to maintain the rule of law and keep the peace locally. ## In the early Middle Ages, Germanic tribes, such as the Franks, divided Western Europe. - In 486, Clovis, king of the Franks, conquered Gaul, later to become France. - Clovis followed his own customs but also kept Roman customs and converted to Christianity. ## In the 600s, Muslims, or believers in Islam, created a huge and expanding empire. - When a Muslim army crossed into France, Charles Martel and his Frankish warriors fought them at the battle of Tours in 732. - Muslims ruled in Spain, but did not advance farther into Western Europe. ## The Age of Charlemagne In 768, Charles Martel’s grandson, also named Charles, became king of the Franks. - He built an empire covering what are now France, Germany, and part of Italy, and he was known as Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. - Later, the pope crowned him the new emperor of the Romans. - Charlemagne united his kingdom by fighting off invaders, conquering peoples, spreading Christianity, and further blending Germanic, Roman, and Christian traditions. - He set up an orderly government, naming nobles to rule locally. - Charlemagne regarded education as another way to unify his kingdom. - He revived Latin learning and encouraged the creation of local schools. - After Charlemagne’s death in 814, his sons battled for power. - In the end, his grandsons split up his empire. ## A New Wave of Invasions - About 900, nomads called Magyars settled in what is present-day Hungary. - They overran Eastern Europe and moved into Germany, France, and Italy, but they were eventually pushed back. - Also, in the late 700s the Vikings from Scandinavia began to invade towns along coasts and rivers in Europe. - The Vikings were skilled sailors and explorers. - They settled and mixed with local peoples in England, Ireland, northern France, and parts of Russia, bringing their culture with them. ## In the face of invasions, a decentralized political and economic structure evolved in medieval Europe. - Feudalism was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided their landholdings among lesser lords. - In exchange, these lesser lords, or vassals, pledged service and loyalty to the greater lord. - The same man might be both vassal to a more powerful lord above him and lord to a less powerful vassal below him. ## A lord and his vassal would exchange a pledge, known as a feudal contract. - Lords expected military service, payments, and loyalty from vassals. - In return, they granted vassals protection and parcels of land, called fiefs. - By the 1100s, many nobles lived in castles, which served as fortresses. - Wars often centered on seizing castles that commanded strategic river crossings, harbors, or mountain passes. - In time of war, peasants from nearby villages might take refuge within the castle walls. ## Lives of the Nobility - For nobles, war was a way of life. - Many trained from boyhood to become knights. - They learned to ride horseback, fight, and care for weapons. - They competed in mock battles called tournaments. - Noblewomen, too, participated in the warrior society. - They took over estates while their husbands were at war, and even fought to defend their lands. - A few learned to read or write. - All were expected to learn spinning, weaving, and the supervising of servants. ## In the later Middle Ages, knights were expected to follow a code of ideal conduct, called chivalry. - It required them to be brave, loyal, and honest, to fight fairly, to treat captured knights well, and to protect the weak. - In practice, few knights could live up to the standards of chivalry, but it did provide a standard of behavior. - Troubadours, or wandering musicians, often sang about knights and ladies. - Their songs formed the basis for medieval romances, or epic stories and poems. ## The Manor System - The manor, or lord's estate, was central to the feudal economy. - Most manors included one or more villages and the surrounding lands. - The lord administered justice and provided land and protection to the peasants who lived on his estate. - In return, peasants owed their lord labor and goods. ## Manors were self-sufficient, producing all that their people needed. - A typical manor included a water mill to grind grain, a church, and shops to manufacture various needed items. - Pastures and fields surrounded the village. - Most peasants on manors were serfs who were bound to the land. - Although they were not slaves, serfs could not leave the manor without permission. ## They had to work the lord's lands several days a week, pay fees, and get permission to marry. - In return, they were allowed to farm some land for themselves and received protection during war. - Their work was harsh, and hunger and disease were common. - Yet they found times to celebrate during the year, such as for marriages and births, as well as at Christmas and Easter. ## During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church controlled the spiritual life of Christians in Western Europe but was also the strongest secular, or nonreligious force. - Church officials were closely linked to secular rulers. - Clergy might even be nobles with lands and armies. ## The Parish Church - For most people, village churches were the center of community life. - Their parish priest celebrated mass and administered sacraments, or sacred rites. - The medieval church taught that the sacraments were needed to achieve salvation. - If he could read or write, the local priest served as the only teacher in the village. - Priests also collected the tithe, or tax paid each year to the Church. - The Church taught that men and women were equal before God. - But on Earth, women were viewed as weak and easily led into sin. - Thus, they needed the guidance of men. ## Life in Monasteries and Convents - Some men and women chose to live a religious life as monks or nuns. - About 530, a monk named Benedict created rules governing life in monasteries, or communities of monks. - Under the Benedictine Rule, monks and nuns took three vows. - The first was obedience to the abbot or abbess who headed the monastery or convent. - The second was poverty, or giving up worldly goods, and the third was chastity, or purity. - Each day was divided into periods for worship, work, and study. ## Monasteries and convents often provided basic social services. - Monks and nuns looked after the poor and sick and set up schools for children. - Travelers could find food and a night’s lodging at many monasteries and convents. - Monasteries and convents also preserved the writings of the ancient world. - Their libraries contained Greek and Roman works which monks and nuns copied as a form of labor. ## Power of the Church - Medieval popes eventually claimed that, as God’s representatives on Earth, they had papal supremacy,