Social Work With Groups PDF

SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Thelma Lee-Mendoza Encoded and submitted by: NORHANIYA A. BASIR and NORHANIZA C. MACABATO THELMA LEE-MENDOZA is at present professorial lecturer in social work at the Philippine Judicial Academy of the Supreme Court of the Philippines She was formerly professor and chairperson of social work in the College of Social Work and Community Development of the University of the Philippines, from which she retired in 1999 after 37 years of service. In 1979 she was a visiting professor of social welfare at University of Southern California and exchange professor at the School of Social Welfare, University of California in Los Angeles in 1988. From 1995 to 2007, she was a professorial lecturer in social work at the Kibi International University Takahashi Educational Institution, in Okayama, Japan. She served as Chairperson of the Board for Social Workers of the Philippine Professional Regulation Commission from 2000-2003. Her practice experience includes eight years as a social worker in the Psychiatric Department of the Wayne County General Hospital in Eloise, Michigan, U.S.A., and at the Philippine Mental Health Association, working with individuals, families and groups. (continued on back flap) SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS THELMA LEE-MENDOZA Professor of Social Work University of the Philippines Published by CENTRAL BOOK SUPPLY, INC. 927 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City Philippines Copyright 1999 by Thelma Lee-Mendoza Philippine Copyright @2003, 2015 All rights reserved First printing, 1999 Second printing, 2003 Third printing, 2015 Published by: Central Book Supply, Inc. Exclusively Distributed by Central Book Supply, Inc. 927 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City Tel. Nos.: 372- 35-50 Philippines No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher and the author. ISBN 978-971-011-941-7 3836 To my parents German G. Lee, Sr. and Fulgencia Gutierrez-Lee PREFACE Professional social work education in the Philippines, which was started in the fifties and is now offered in many schools, continues to suffer from a serious lack of standard works on the subject. This has important implications not only for social work graduates, who have to take the licensure examination, but also for the quality of their practice in the field of social welfare. This book has been written to respond to this problem. It. aims to provide social work students with a text to help them acquire an understanding and appreciation of the basic knowledge and skills necessary for beginning competence in social work practice particularly with small groups, both in traditional settings such as hospitals, courts, and family and child-caring institutions, and in recently developed or emerging settings such as human settlements and women-oriented agencies. In addition, the book aims to provide social workers and administrators of group-serving agencies with a clear and up-to-date description of how small groups can be used as means of helping clients. The hope is that this book will also be of help to members of agency boards and volunteers who desire a deeper understanding of social work operations as well as to those in other countries, especially those who are in the social welfare field, who want to know about the nature of social work in the Philippines. v The first three chapters of this book deal with the historical and conceptual framework of group practice to pro vide the user with a basic orientation essential to an appreciation of the rest of the chapters. Chapter 4 (Phases in Group Development) and Chapter 5 (The Helping Process in Social Work with Groups) present congruent processes which must be carefully understood by the practitioner if he/she is to be effective in his/her work with small groups. Chapter 6 presents four theoretical models/approaches selected from those developed in the United States. These approaches are docu- mented with case illustrations. The identification of each approach with a particular case represents my own personal judgment. No one of the practitioners who handled these cases labeled her work as an exemplification of one or the other approach/model. Nevertheless their identification with one or the other model/approach is important. Knowledge that what one is doing has basis in theory gives one the con- fidence that one is doing right. Theory is important. The identification of models/approaches is intended to show their applicability to local settings. Philippine practitio- ners have indeed been using these models/approaches with- out being aware of them. It appears that the varied kinds of group problems or situations were being handled appropri- ately without the practitioners giving a name to the approach being used. After all, it was only in 1976 when the book Theories of Social Work With Groups (Robert W. Roberts and Helen Northen, eds.) was published, that we came to know about these different models and approaches. Emanuel Tropp's "Developmental Approach" is described in this book. No other writings by him is available in school libraries. Vi in this country. The work with the Sta. Lucia Hospital Group, which is used to illustrate Tropp's approach, was undertaken in the early seventies in response to the developmental thrust in social welfare, following the United Nation's Declaration of the 70s as the Second Development Decade, long before we even first read about Tropp's model. Thus, two points can be made: first, the models/appro- aches presented in this book are not inappropriate or irrele vant even if they were developed in a foreign country, i.e., the United States; and second, we must mobilize support for the- ory-building efforts so that we do not merely adapt or im prove on practice theories or concepts developed in other lands, but also develop our own. This book contains more than a hundred pages of ap- pended material, from group dynamics theory to group re- cording forms and review questions. It is hoped that these will serve the needs of the reader especially in places where there is a dearth of social work reference works. I have incurred many debts in the preparation of this book which was started and completed without the benefit of any grant, which was my choice because I did not want to be burdened with deadlines. I am grateful to the University of the Philippines for reduced teaching load, enabling me to on this book with just the right amount of pressure. I acknowledge the encouragement of my colleagues in the U.P. Department of Social Work and express my deep apprecia- tion for their trust that I could get this book done. I thank all my classroom and field students who read, reacted, and made Vii suggestions to improve this book. I particularly the following former students who contributed the cases used to illustrate the four group work approaches presented in this book: Bituin Gonzales (Developmental Approach); Zenaida Rosales (Remedial Model); BelindaJubilo Santos (Interaction ist Approach); and Susan Fernandez Granada (Crisis Inter- vention Approach). want to thank Many thanks are due to our College librarians, Fe Ticzon and Victoria Guanzon, who were always gracious and helpful with my many requests for reference materials. Natividad Caparros, Criselda Velasco and Jetro Gawaen of the Adminis- trative Section of the College cheerfully extended assistance which eased many anxieties concerning the publication of this book on time. Rosita Zamora tirelessly and with great patience typed and retyped the manuscript. I thank her from the bottom of my heart for indispensable help. I acknowledge with gratitude the permission given to me by different publishers and authors to quote/reproduce their materials in this book. Finally, I wish to thank my family - my husband Vicente V. Mendoza for his encouragement and support and for helping edit this work; our children for the inspiration; and our five-year old grandchild Allyn who will probably never know how much joy she gave me which lightened the burden of seeing a book of this length to completion. Thelma Lee-Mendoza Quezon City, Philippines June 8, 1999 Viii CONTENTS Page Chapter One – Introduction 1 Social Work's Focus of Concern 1 The Development of Casework, Group Work and Community Organization 2 The Generalist Approach) 5 Values Foundation Knowledge Foundation 6 Questions for Discussion 14 Special Activities 14 Chapter Two-Social Work with Group: A Historical Background 19 The Sixties: Prevention, Treatment and Developmental Goals 21 The Seventies: Emphasizing Developmental Goals 23 The Present Scene 24 Questions for Discussion 27 Special Activities 27 Chapter Three - The Uses of Groups 31 Uses of Groups 33 How Groups Effect Change 36 An Integrated Approach to Work with Groups 41 Questions for Discussion 42 Special Activities 42 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Four-Phases in Group Development 45 Introduction 45 Conceptions of Group Phases 46 The Phases in Group Development 48 Questions for Discussion 58 Special Activities. 58 Chapter Five - The Helping Process in Social Work with Groups 61 Introduction 61 Pre-Group Formation Activities of the Social Worker 62 Individual-Focused Assessment and Planning 68 Group-Focused Assessment and Planning 74 Program Media 86 Other Goal-Related Activities 89 Plan Implementation 90 Aspects of Plan Implementation 91 Worker Stances During the Helping Process 93 Evaluation 96 Termination 100 Questions for Discussion. 107 Special Activities 108 Chapter Six-Theoretical Models Approaches 113 The Developmental Approach 113 How the Approach Evolved 115 Basic Characteristics 117 x TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Other Basic Characteristics of the Developmental Approach. 120 Methodological Principles 127 Uses and Limitations of the Developmental Approach 134 Questions for Discussion 142 Special Activities 142 The Remedial Model 144 The Target of the Remedial Model 144 An Interactional of Deviance 145 The Treatment Group 146 The Treatment Sequence 146 Strategy of Intervention 154 Questions for Discussion 179 Special Activities 180 The Interactionist Approach 181 The Mediating Function 181 The Group 182 Phases of the Work 183 Questions for Discussion 199 Special Activities 199 The Crisis Intervention Approach 201 What is a Crisis 201 Crisis Intervention 202 Characteristics of Crisis Intervention 203 Phases in Crisis Intervention 204 Target Population 207 Advantages of Group Crisis Intervention 208 Special Features of Crisis Intervention Groups 208 xi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page The Four-Step Approach in Group Crisis Intervention 209 Crisis Incident Stress Debriefing 219 How is CISD done? 220 Questions for Discussion 229 Special Activities 230 Appendix A - Group Structure and Process in Social Work 237 Appendix B - Systems Theory 289 Appendix C - Diagnostic Statement 293 Appendix D - Social Work Practice with Groups: Other Models and Approaches 299 Appendix E - Group Records 305 Appendix F - Selected Program Media/Activities that can be used in Social Work with Groups 313 Appendix G - Review Questions Index 343 -o0o- xii CHAPTER ONE Introduction Social Work's Focus of Concern Every profession has a focus of concern. Social Work as a profession is concerned with the person-in-his- life situation or, more specifically, the individual's social functioning. Social functioning, results from the individual's performance of a diversity of roles in society, such as husbands and wives in their marital roles, in their parental roles if they have children, and in their work roles if they are employed. Problems in social functioning occur when the demands of a role do not match a person's capacities, or when one's role performance is in conflict with those of others. Problems can also occur because of factors in the environment, such as its failure to provide resources needed for role performance or because the resources or opportunities that are available are beyond the coping capacities of people; The goal of social work is the "enhancement of social functioning whenever the need for such is either socially or individually perceived." This is done through efforts whose aim is to help individuals deal with their social situation's by changing themselves, their environment, or both. 1 2 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS The activities performed by social workers fall under what have been established as the three general functions of social work: 1) preventive which is concerned with identifying and dealing with potential areas of disequilibrium between persons and the environment; 2) remedial (including rehabilita tive) which aims to assist people in identifying and resolving problems that have resulted from the disequilibrium between themselves and their environment; and 3) developmental which aims to seek out, identify, and strengthen the maximum po- tential in individuals, groups and communities, frequently through the provision of individual and social resources.? These functions are interrelated. In practice, many social workers engage in all three functions, particularly when dealing with multi-problem client systems. The functions just described have been and continue to be performed by many social workers through the separate practice of casework, group work or community organization, the traditional methods introduced by the Western world. Today, however, the realities and demands of social work practice in the country appear to make the generalist approach the preferred practice methodology for a growing number of social workers. The Development of Casework, Group Work and Community Organization In the 1920s, efforts to utilize the casework method in the Philippines were started in' the Associated Charities and in government child welfare services. Many of the first social work-trained practitioners in the country studied in the United States and came back to introduce casework concepts and principles in the field and in the few schools established in the early 1950s. It is against this background that we can Introduction 3 understand why casework was, for decades, the method of social work that prevailed in the country, not only in the field of practice but in social work education as well. While the courses in schools with social work offerings included social casework, social group work and community organization, social casework appeared to receive the greater emphasis. In addition to the course on casework, there were courses on the historical development of social work and interviewing which portrayed the one-to-one helping method. The different fields of social work where social work students had their practicum (such as hospitals, courts and public assistance agencies) used mainly the casework method. As a result, many of these agencies came to be called "casework agencies." This situa- tion continued until the late 1960's when a series of national workshops were held to assess the objectives and content of social work education and practice in the, country, including the matter of social work methods.+ About the same period that casework was starting to be in social welfare agencies in the country during the 1920s, socio-civic organizations like the Young Men's Chris- tian Association (YMCA) and the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) were already starting leisure-time acti- vities for personality development and character-building purposes. These agencies were introduced during the period of colonial rule in the Philippines, and their purposes relate to what was termed in the United States as the "socialization function" of group-serving agencies. They were the first group-serving agencies in the country and the first teachers of group work were mostly recruited from these agencies. Unfortunately, the perception in the country of group work as leisure-time pursuit which requires mainly skills in recrea- tional activities made it quite unattractive to social work graduates, compared to the scenarios conjured by casework practice which in the 50s and 60s was being practiced in SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS 4 mental health and other therapeutic settings. The historical development of group work will be discussed further in the next chapter. Community organization as practiced in our country today is a far cry from the way it was done in the late 1950s, voluntary It started as "community chest" work, which originated from the United States. The community chest is a organization which raises the necessary funds for the ope rations of its affiliates or member agencies byway of a united fund campaign. The idea is to exercise economy and avoid competition in fund-raising efforts and to bring about coo- peration and coordination among member agencies so as to avoid duplication of services. The need for a community chest was felt because of the proliferation of private social welfare organizations after World War 11. The Community Chest of Greater Manila (CCGM) was organized on De- cember 20, 1949, with 19 private agencies as its first affiliates. The formation of other community chests in different parts of the country followed and led to the establishment of an organization called Community Chest and Council of the Philippines (CCCP) in 1970. Its objectives have expanded to now include planning and development of innovative and relevant programs and services." The concept of a community chest is in line with one of the objectives of the community organization method as defined by Dunham, that is, "the meeting of broad needs and bringing about and maintaining adjustments between needs and resources in a community and other areas." Many changes in "CO practice" have since taken place, including the introduction of different models and approaches in doing community organization." While the Martial Law period in the 1970s discouraged organizing efforts, in many instances it had the reverse effect as many social work students and Introduction 5 practitioners were all the more challenged to engage in the kind of organizing activities which Cox, et. al., refer to as the "social action model" of community organization.12 Today, community organization is a very popular method, particu- larly in social development settings which utilize it as the main helping approach for community problem-solving, These three methods called the traditional methods of social work practice are still widely taught and practiced as separate methods, not just in our country but, in many parts of the world. The Generalist Approach The trend in the last two decades has been to place at the disposal of the professional social worker a generic helping process for use with all types of client systems and a repertoire of models and approaches from which the worker can draw selectively, as necessary, given the client problem to be addressed. When did we start to consider a generalist orientation for social work practice in the country? In the first national workshop held to assess the objec- tives and content of social work education, Filipino educators and practitioners recommended that "as a deliberate force for change, the schools should teach methods based on the wholistic approach so that the individual, the group, and the community are used as functional points of entry, and de- velop skills based on the generic aspects of the methods used by social workers.13 Furthermore, in 1968, an initial effort was made to develop "models of intervention" applicable to all types of Filipino client systems.14 This was premised on the fact that the separate practice of the three traditional methods 6 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS by different social workers is not relevant and appropriate to local realities, Le, there is usually just one social worker responding to the needs and problems presented by a chent system, whether individual, family, group or community. Thar premise, plus the view that personal problems cannot be taken out of their situational contexts, has reinforced the belief that what we actually need are social workers, nor "caseworkers," "group workers" and "CO. workers." This trend in the direction of a generalist approach to practice is clearly seen in the more recent social work literature which uses such terminology as "integrated method," "genetic prac ace," multi-method practice," "unitary approach," and "general method of social work practice." These efforts in the direction of a generalist approach to practice stem from the view that social problems involve different social systems and that one cannot/should not deal with one system in isolation from other systems. That a social worker has the capability of dealing with different social systems, 4, individuals, groups and communities, comes from the recognition that there is a basic or minimum foun- dation in values or knowledge that one applies in practice. We will now review this framework Values Foundation The values foundation of professional social work consists of its philosophy, values, principles and professional ethics The philosophy or basic belief of social work is that every human being has worth (balaga) and dignity (pagkata). This is true whether one works with that human being on a one-on- one basis, as member of a small group, or as part of a larger collectivity. Introduction 7 Social work adheres to many alwer,15 but the ultimate value of the profession rests on the conviction that it is good and desirable for every human-being to fulfill his potential, to realize himself, and to balance this with equal efforts to help others do the same. 16 This value commitment implies that every individual has a potential and capacity that can be har- nessed toward his own self-realization, but that the individual also has a social responsibility, that is, to contribute to the common good. This value commitment is clearly evident in the way a social worker uses the group as an instrument to respond to the need or problem of one group member even as this person also contributes to the development or prob- lem solving of other group members. Social Workers are guided by basic principles or rules of action which emanate from the belief that every human being has worth and dignity. Let us briefly review these principles, and how they apply to work with groups. 1. Acceptance. The social worker's education and the agency's support of his helping role form the basis for respecting the group whatever its circumstances. It means the worker must deal with the group in its own reality. It means understanding the meaning and causes of the behavior of the individuals that compose the group, and the meaning and causes of the behavior of the group as a whole. It means that one should always accept the individual and the group even if one does not always approve of the individual's or group's action. 2. Participation. This principle requires the worker to involve the group in all the steps of problem- solving. Professional training is not an excuse for "taking over" in the course of the helping relationship. The 8 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS worker should build upon and utilize the group's own strengths and resources. A wise move would be to make the group understand that its active invol vement is expected from the start until the end of the helping relationship. 3. Self-determination. The worker must respect the group's right to determine its own goals and the means for achieving them. It is expected, however, that with the worker's presence as a helping person, he will contribute his knowledge and experience towards the group's problem-solving efforts. A clear understanding of this principle can help avoid the ever-present danger of manipulating the group for personal ends, or, on the other extreme, of agreeing to everything the group wants to do regardless of its implications or consequences. Self-determination does not mean that the worker should not intervene or set limits on plans and actions of the necessary to do so. group if it is 4. Individualization. No two groups are the. same even as there are characteristics common to all groups. It is therefore necessary to know the specifics relating to every group, such as the people that compose it their concerns, values and attitudes, expectations, goals, etc.; the group's level of organization, its goals, its communication, affectional and leadership structure, and other important dynamics, and the environment in which the group exists and with which it interacts. The principle of individualization makes the worker conscious of the group's parti- cular situation, and the need to respond accordingly. This is especially important in the Philippines where most social workers deal with groups coming from Introduction 9 poverty-stricken families and communities, and it is so easy to make generalizations about the nature of their needs and problems, which can make one in- effective in his helping efforts. 5. Confidentiality. In working with groups, the worker often finds members sharing information of a con- fidential nature. Planned group experiences also tend to make for uninhibited expression of thoughts and feelings. It should be presumed that in these, as in all similar situations, the worker can be trusted to ob- serve the principle of confidentiality. Certain realities in the Philippine setting, eg, inadequate facilities, a highly personalistic culture ("I think of the group as my family") make the principle of confidentiality difficult to observe. However, professional helper should exercise good judgement and handle a situa- tion in such a way that client privacy is protected. The worker should also bear in mind that a group situation may have more constraints with regard to the principle of confidentiality than in a one-to-one helping relationship and so he must know how to set limits on the extent of sharing confidential infor- mation in the group. 6. Worker self-awareness. This requires self-understanding (beliefs, values, biases, etc.) and consciousness of one's responses to the group, ie, whether they are professionally motivated, (ie., to be helpful to the group) or personally motivated (ie., to meet his own needs or aim). Self-discipline is crucial here, con- sidering that in the Philippines majority of the poor feel that they owe the worker a debt of gratitude ("'utang na loob") for helping them. Such a situation makes it easy for the worker to manipulate a group. 10 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS However, it is just as possible for a group to manipulate a worker who is inexperienced and lacks self- confidence. Given all these, self-awareness, is crucial to effective helping as it makes possible the worker's conscious use of self which is very impor- tant in social work. 7. Purposeful relationship. A social worker's professional relationship with a group does not just happen or move in a desired direction. It is deliberately planned, based on a careful study of the group's problem or situation. In social work, the generic helping/social work problem-solving process involves a series of sequential steps which proceed through time, with each step characterized by certain events and act- vities unique to it. The steps are: assessment (study and problem definition); action-planning, plan im- plementation (intervention); evaluation (assessment of helping results), and termination of the helping transaction. Each step has a thrust that gives meaning to the worker-group relationship at any given time. The steps combine into a process that illustrates a purposeful relationship. Ethics is the science that is concerned with morals and right conduct. Professional ethics is the system of ethical principles and rules of conduct which, in social work, is the concrete expression of its philosophy, values and principles that have just been described. They guide the social worker's professional relationship with clients, co-worker. Socialwork profession, the agency, and the community/public. Many of these principles and rules of conduct are arti- culated in the profession's formal, written Code of Ethics. We are guided not only by the Code of Ethics formulated by the Introduction 11 Philippine Association of Social Workers, but also by the International Federation of Social Workers' 1994 Ethics of Social Work: Principles and Standards, because the PASW is a member of the IFSW. In addition, part of the profession's regulative code consists of informal and unwritten rules,.., duties and ob- lagations expected from the social worker in his professional dealingswith the parties mentioned earlier. These are the "givens" that do not have to be written down; they come from the professional social worker's sense of reason as well as conscience which helps him to discern what is night from what is wrong. The unwritten rules carry the weight of written pres- criptions and are therefore as important as what are in the Code. This system of ethics written and unwritten-serves as a compass which guides social workers on what path to follow in their professional relationships. Knowledge Foundation In professional education for social work, the courses are grouped into curriculum areas: knowledge of the person and the environment, knowledge about social problems and society's response to them in terms of social welfare policies, programs and services, and knowledge about social work practice. These curricular areas represent the knowledge foundation of social work. Social work students are, taught theories that help them understand a person in terms of bio-physical and psycho- logical factors, and theories that explain the environment physical, social, cultural, political and economic forces-all of 12 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS which influence behavior. This area of knowledge continues to comprise a major of the knowledge foundation for social workers. However, whereas earlier thinking saw the individual and the environment as distinct units, with a cause-effect relationship between them and usually considered separately, social work literature in the last decade has increasingly turned to a framework that shows the person /situation as an interrelated whole. This framework is the general systems theory (or ecological systems approach") which is very useful given the main concern of social work which is social functioning, 19 All the foundation knowledge about Human Behavior and the Environment personality theory, ego psychology theory, learning theory, role theory, communication theory, culture theory, small group theory, community processes, 20 bureaucracy, etc. - fit into this systems framework. Another aspect of the knowledge foundation of social work pertains to the varied social problems that exist today and the Social Welfare Policies, Programs and Services (inclu- ding general policies, laws, institutions) that respond to the unmet needs people in society. In working with different kinds of groups, the worker has to know what unmet human needs are reflected in the problems they present, and he must utilize the social resources crucial to problem-solving. The knowledge foundation that refers to the specific area called Social Work Practice includes the goal of social work (enhancement of the person-situation interaction), its functions (preventive, remedial/rehabilitative, and develop mental), and the social work helping process consisting of the steps/processes of Assessment, Action-Planning, Plan Imp- lementation, Evaluation and Termination. Subsumed under the helping process are different interventive models and ap- Introduction 13 proaches, some applicable to all client systems," and some applicable to particular client systems, ie, individuals, groups and communities. The use of helping tools/techniques like communication, interview, records, programs/activities and community resources also form part of the knowledge foun- dation of social workers under this area. To be able to work with a group with some sense of at least beginning competence, the practitioner must have for a minimum "equipment, the values and knowledge foundations that have just been presented. 14 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Questions for Discussion 1. Explain the meaning of social functioning. Give examples, of social functioning problems. 2. Explain the functions of socialwork. Give examples of how these functions relate to the ultimate goal of social work,.., the enhancement of human social functioning. 3. Explain what constitute the two main components of the social work profession. Give examples of issues problems relating to these two components. 4. What other professions engage in direct helping relation- ships with people? Discuss the nature of their work and compare and contrast what they do with what trained social workers do. What conclusions can you draw from the discussion? Special Activities 1. Prepare a five-minute talk on the history of social group work in the Philippines. 2. Go to the library and look for articles/publications in the last ten years on the subject of social work methodology. Survey the materials on the a) methods of casework, group-work, and community organization and b) the generalist, integrated, unitary () method or approach. Report to the class on your findings in terms of trends or directions in social work methodology. Introduction 15 3. Hold a debate in class on the "Resolved: The Separate Practice of Casework, Group Work, and Com- munity Organization Is Not Appropriate for Filipino Client Situations," and/or Invite a panel of three practicing social workers a case worker, a group worker, and a community organization worker and a generalist practitioner to discuss their respective methods of helping people. Have someone facilitate and summarize the panel discussion. 16 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS NOTES 1 Werner W Boehm, Objectives of the Social Work Curriculum of the Future, Vol. I (New York: Council on Social Work Education), 1959 2 Ibed. See also Commission on Social Work Practice, Social Work 3:2 (April 1958), pp. 5-8. 3 Philippine Engclopedia of Social Work, 1971, (Philippine Association of Social Workers), pp. 3, 63, 256, 276-277) 4 Ser Social Welfare Board and SWA-UNICEF Assisted Social Services Project, Report of the First National Workshop on Social Work Education (Manila: SWA-UNICEF, 1967), and reports of subsequent workshops, 1968, 1969, and so on. 5 Philippine Encylopedia of Social Work, 1971, p. 276. 6 In these settings the "caseworker" usually worked as a members of the treatment team which included a psychiatrist and a psychologist. This took place mostly in the government's National Mental Hos pital, at the Philippine Mental Health Association, in the psychiatric wards of hospitals, and in treatment agencies for children with mental/emotional disturbance like the Special Child Study Center. 7 Crisanto V. Ramirez, "Community Chests" in Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work 1977, (Philippine Association of Social Workers), p. 39. 8 Ibid., p. 40. 9 Ibid. 10 Arthur Dunham, The New Community Organization (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1970) pp.. 278-279. 11 John L. Erlich, Fred M. Cox, Jack Rothman, and John E. Tropman, Strategies of Community Organization (Itasca Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1979), p. 5. 12 Ibid. Introduction 17 13 Report of the First National Workshop on Social Work Education, 1967, op. cit., p. 16, 14 The next chapter will dwell on this, which is part of this writer's framework. For initial efforts to develop interventive models of social work practice applicable to different client systems, and to develop the concept of an integrated method, see Thelme Lee- Mendoza, Social Welfare and Social Work: An Introduction, (Cebu City. Cornejo and Sons, Inc., 1981), pp. 161-216, 250-256 15 See Thelma Lee-Mendoza, Social Welfare and Social Work - An Introduction, op.cit., pp. 74-88. 16 William Gordon, "A Critique of the Working Definitions of Social Work Practice," Journal of Social Work, Vol. VII No. 4 (October, 1962), p. 8. 17 Government employees in the Philippines are also expected toobserve the Code of Standards and Ethics for Government Officials and Employees. 18 For some of these unwritten rules, refer to Thelma Lee-Mendoza, Social Welfare and Social Work, op.city, pp. 108-109, 19 This writer believes that Filipino social workers should think "systems." Systems theory is useful as a framework not only for organizing the knowledge base of social work in relation to the conception of the persons as a biopsychosocial being but also for developing or using practice models and approaches 20 The writer also believes that there is need to give more attention to the teaching of small group theory in social work education in the country. She presents in Appendix A what she considers to be some of the basics of small group theory which the social worker should know. 21 See Thelma Lee-Mendoza, Social Work 220. Social Work Theory and Practice in the Philippines University of the Philippines Open University @1995. CHAPTER TWO Social Work with Groups: A Historical Background Introduction Games and recreational activities are what many people associate with social work practice with groups. I am sure you know of social work agencies that still offer mainly these kinds of experiences as ends in themselves, or as instruments to meet certain agency objectives. However, social work practice with groups in the country has changed through the years because of different events which we will now review. Before the Sixties: Socialization Goals I mentioned previously that the development of the social work method of working with groups or "social, group work" (henceforth to be simply referred to as "group work") may be traced to the introduction of socio-civic movements during the period of American colonial rule. These movements included the YMCA (1911), the YWCA (1926), and the Boy Scouts of the Philippines (1936). They paved the way for the establish- ment of agencies that used groups for personality development and character-building through wholesome leisure-time or rec- 19 20 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS reational activities. Leadership in these groups was initially carried out by volunteers until these movements moved into the training of workers along the different agencies' specific programs. Much later, these workers were required by their agencies to take formal courses in group work. Many of the first teachers of group work in the Philip pines were formerly employed in these socio-civic agencies. Groups were used for the development of the individual through training in social skills and inculcating social values. Socialization the process by which people selectively acquire the values and attitudes of the groups of which they are a part - was the main goal of group-serving social agencies during their first decades in the country. These agencies' service-users were organized into groups that participated' in wholesome recreational activities such as arts and crafts, camping, sports, etc., from which people derived a lot of fun and enjoyment. The socialization goals were perhaps not fully appreciated, and social work in this field of practice did not seem to be very attractive to social work graduates. The image of group work as leisure-time activity seems to have persisted despite the fact that by the late 1950's there were already group-ser- ving agencies like the Philippine Youth Welfare Coordinating Council using groups for preventive and developmental goals through leadership and skills training for out-of-school youth. About the same time, social workers in family welfare agen- cies like the Foster Parents Plan, Inc. also began organizing mothers' groups to promote responsible parenthood, voca- tional efficiency, and citizenship training. It is evident that during the fiffies, social agencies were, organizing groups for socialization goals but not anymore by way of recreational activities only. Even earlier, from 1958 to 1959, the Philippine Mental Health Association already had a community outreach pro- Social Work with Groups: A Historical Background 21 gram for the prevention of juvenile delinquency in selected communities in the city of Manila. Based on data obtained on the incidence of juvenile delinquency in the city, we (yes, that was my first job as a social worker) were able to implement parent-education programs that utilized skits and drama pre- sentations focused on themes related to the problems of delinquency which were discussed after each presentation. The Sixties: Prevention, Treatment, and Developmental Goals By the 1960s, an increasing number of agencies was using the group method for both preventive and therapeutic purposes. Mental health agencies like the Special Child Study Center, Inc. organized parents' groups to help the participants to understand, accept, and deal with their children's condi- tions. At the Philippine Mental Health Association, writer was part of a team (consisting of a psychiatrist, a clinical psy- chologist, and a psychiatric social worker) which conducted group therapy sessions, including the use of psycho-drama with emotionally disturbed patients in its Day Care Center. A great deal of group work was also undertaken in the field of government housing and resettlement during the sixties, Much of the work involved efforts of social workers in the (then) Department of Social Welfare. I know this because I supervised a number of graduate students who did their field practicum in the DSW's numerous tenement housing community centers in the Metropolitan Manila area. These centers were established mainly to help the tenants deal with common concerns and problems and to help them integrate into the surrounding community. What the social workers did was to first form tenants' associations in the housing area. Once this was done, the members would then 22 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUP identify their common problems and form small groups, each of which dealt with a particular problem. Thus, an out-of-school youth group would address the problem of idleness, un employment, lack of skills and gang wars among themselves a group of heads of households would deal with the problem of water supply and garbage disposal; a mothers' group would address their concerns relating to child cake, household ma- nagement and family planning. This kind of group work is what is described in social work literature as developmental group time work which is, of course, so different from the leisure- group work activities that prevailed in the earlier years. Similar efforts continue and in fact have expanded particu- larly in agencies that emphasize socio-economic or livelihood programs. The contribution of some schools of social work to the development of social group work cannot be overlooked. It is common knowledge that the need to provide students with experiences in the use of the method provided some impetus to its further development particularly in demonstrating to social agencies other approaches to social work with groups. Among the first social group workers in government housing commu- nity centers were University of the Philippines' graduate social work students who were persuaded to demonstrate this deve- lopmentally-oriented form of group work. While convinced of the relevance of this type of group work, many social suffered from staff limitations and could embark on innovative agencies programs only with the placement of field practicum students who could do the work. Two other examples of this can be cited both of which took place during the middle up to the late sixties: (1) the cooperative endeavor between the Philippine School of Social Work (Philippine Women's University) and the Philippine Youth Welfare Coordinating Council, where students worked with youth groups for socialization and developmental goals and the University of the Philippines' (then) Department Social Work with Groups: A Historical Background 23 of Social Work (now College of Social Work and Community Development) and the St. Luke's Hospitals field placement program for social work students where preventive and deve- lopmental goals with poverty stricken families being served on an out-patient, basis and therapeutic goals with patients in the hospital's psychiatric ward were pursued. The Seventies: Emphasizing Developmental Goals In the following decade, the government's pursuit of its Development Plan was reflected in efforts in the Depart- ment of Social Welfare (which in 1976 had become, the Department of Social Services and Development) to under- take develop mental programs and services for the bottom 30-percent of the country's population. Emphasis on deve- lopmental social welfare was spurred by the United Nations' declaration of the First Developmental Decade in the sixties and the Second Developmental Decade in the seventies. Intended mainly to support increased productivity on the part of individuals, groups, and communities, social workers imp- lemented self-employment assistance, leadership training, day care, responsible parenthood, and family life education programs. The "barangay approach" facilitated these efforts, ie, the use of the existing political structure, the barangay, as the worker's point of entry and the basis for problem iden- tification and prioritizing. In all these activities, the group was used as the main instrument of service. During the late sixties and seventies, social workers in juvenile and domestic relations courts also used groups to help provide legal offenders with group experiences aimed at their socialization and/or re- socialization, while those employed in orphanages provided their wards with group experiences for socialization purposes. These settings were used for the 24 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS supervised field work of social work students who needed so be provided with such kinds of experiences. Socialization and re-socialization were therefore important concerns but no longer just through wholesome voluntary leisure-time ac vities as was the thrust of the socio-civic movements in their earlier years. The declaration of Martial Law (1972 to 1981) had significant effects on social work education and practice. The poor period provoked a great deal of consciousness-raising efforts which were aimed at making many rural and urban citizens realize that many of their problems (lack of basic amenities like water, low-cost housing, medical facilities, emp- loyment opportunities, etc.), were due to deficiencies in their social situations. It became clear that to change or modify the nature of these situations it was imperative for social workers to help people organize and use themselves as the major resource. Efforts alone this line again invariably engaged social workers in work with small groups, or, what is referred to in the literature-as "community group work." The Present Scene Today, most social welfare agencies in the country offer some type of group service. Many of these agencies engage in group service not just for one but for several purposes, eg, developmental, socialization/re-socialization, and treatment or rehabilitation. The developmental purpose emphasizes human and community resource mobilization. Examples are public agen- cies which invest a major portion of their resources for the support of livelihood programs. These programs involve organizing clients into groups which go through training for Social Work with Groups: A Historical Background 25 leadership and small-scale business management and then make decisions on the livelihood project(s) to be undertaken, rules governing collection and payment of loans, marketing of products, etc. Another example would be the many day care centers whose social work staff organize mothers into groups which are used to help them, acquire knowledge and skills in effective parenting, household management, personal enhan- cement, and the like. The socialization purpose is carried out by organizing groups that are intended primarily to help the members to acquire the values, attitudes and norms of the society of which they are a part. Many public and private agencies and institutions have programs for street children and runaways which focus on values formation using the group mode of service. Probation offices and correctional institutions also conduct group programs which emphasize their clients' learning or re-learning of acceptable ways of behaving and handling situations. The treatment purpose focuses on the use of the small group to help individuals who already have a problem or breakdown in their social functioning. Thus, we find in the country today many social agencies which organize groups of victims of natural disasters, child abuse, adult sexual abuse, and drug abuse. There are also group programs for the ter- minally ill, the physically handicapped, patients undergoing kidney dialysis, etc. Many of these programs serve mainly therapeutic functions. However, because of the multi-prob- lem situations of the individual group members, the prac- titioner working with the group frequently also engages in more comprehensive case management activities, particularly of the kind which address groups members' socio-economic concerns and problems. 26 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Except for the limited pursuit of the socialization pur- pose of group work by socio-civic organizations in the early decades of their existence in the country (1920 to 1960s) and the active pursuit of developmental group work programs during the seventies, it can be concluded, based on the turn of events in the last ten or so years, that there is no one group work purpose that has emerged as predominant. The varied problems confronting Filipino social welfare clients indicate the relevance and responsiveness of group programs which have developmental, socialization and therapeutic purposes or goals. Social Work with Groupe A Historical Background 27 Questions for Discussion 1. Identify the socio-civic movements which introduced group work in the Philippines and which are still ope- rating in the country today. Compare and contrast their group programs and services in the past with those of today. 2. Discuss the developmental, socialization and treatment oriented goals behind social agency group programs. Based on what you know about the problems of Filipino clients, should only one of these goals be given emp- hasis? Explain your answer. 3. What kinds of problems/situations confront Filipino so- cial work clients today that call for the group mode of service? What specific kinds of group programs and ser- vices seem indicated? Special Activities 1. List all the social work agencies that, to your knowledge, offer group-oriented programs and services. Classify these agencies/programs according to the goals being pursued eg, developmental, socialization, treatment. Explain/co- mment on your findings; and/or Construct a questionnaire and send it to several social work agencies for the purpose of getting specific infor- mation about each agency's goal for doing group work, ie, developmental, socialization, treatment, etc. 28 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Interview some of the groupwork "old-timers" and pre- pare a two-page report on groupwork as they did it before, ie, what, why and how. 3. Visit two social work agencies that are using the group mode of service, an institution (eg., a juvenile correc- tional setting, a shelter for victims of domestic violence), and a community-based agency (eg., human settlement area, community center). Compare and contrast the group work these two settings are doing. Social Work with Group: A Historical Background 29 NOTES 1 Social group work's historical roots in Europe and in the United States can be traced to these same organizations, as well as settlement houses. In the order of their historical emergence, the functons of groupwork service in the United States are described as 1) the maintenance of a democratic society, as groups provide opportunities for individual participation and collective decision-making, 2) the development of the individual through training in social skills and inculcating social values through guided group experiences; and 3) the amelioration of the adverse conditions of individuals whose behavior is disapproved, or who have been disadvantaged by the workings of an imperfect society. While the first function is no longer a major concern in the United States, it is still a central concern in the Philippines where the poverty of the majority of the population results in their exploitation and alienation, preventing them from active participation in community life. This is considered essential to their empowerment- - a major force for correcting many social inequities in the country. For a better understanding of the development of social group work particularly in the United States, refer to Robert D. Vinter, "Social Group Work" in Encyclopedia of Social Work (New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1965), PP. 715-724. 2 Philippine Englopedia of Social Work, 1971, (Philippine Association of Social Workers), pp. 278-279. 3 Ibid., p. 278. 4 See "Group Therapy in the Philippine Mental Health Association: A Preliminary Report" by Thelma Lee, International Mental Health Research Newsletter, Vol. VI, No. 2 (Summary 1964), and "Group Therapy for the Emotionally Disturbed" by Thelma Lee, FOCUS (Official Publication of the Philippine Mental Health Association), November December, 1962. 5 This writer has first-hand knowledge about the collaborative field project between the University of the Philippines' Department of Social Work (now) College of Social Work and Community Deve lopment) and the St. Luke's Hospital as she was the designated 30 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS faculty field supervisor for the hospital in the late sixties. Ms. Virginia Herbert, M.S.W., head of the hospital's Social Service Department (where only the casework method was being used by the social work staff) advocated a program and requested the University to place a graduate group work student in their department. The student, Bituin Gonzales, proposed and directly implemented a patients' therapy group in the Psychiatric Ward and a developmental group for mothers in the Out-patient Department. 6 See National Economic Development Authority, Four Year Deve- lopment Plan for Fiscal Year 1974- 1977 and National Economic Development Authority, Five Year Philippine Development Plan, 1978- 1982. 7 For an illustrations of the use of the approach, refer to Federico B. Campay, "Implementing the MSSD's Baranganic Approach in Region XI: The Case of Barangay Ligaya," in Social Work, Vol. 27, Nos. 3 & 4, 1982, Philippine Association of Social Workers. 8 Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work, 1971, pp. 277-278. 9 Paul Abels, "Instructed Advocacy and Community Group Work," in Perspectives on Social Group Work Practice. Alber S. Alissi, ed. (New York: The Free Press, 1980), p. 327. CHAPTER THREE The Uses of Groups Today, more than any other time, social workers have vast opportunities to work with different groups given their employment in an increasingly wide variety of social welfare settings. There are, for example, opportunities offered in "traditional settings" like those found in homes for abandoned and neglected children, institutions for youth and adult legal offenders, rehabilitation centers for the mentally and physically handicapped, and health centers and hospitals. Other settings provide opportunities to work with groups of children and who are victims of physical and other forms of abuse, former political prisoners and migrant urban poor and be- neficiaries of livelihood and other economic development programs. Areas which have been struck by natural disasters also offer a new setting for group work practice. The group approach can be employed in various phases of disaster response, from the early phase concerned primarily with resource provision through the subsequent period of reha- bilitation of victims of these disasters. For social workers, the group approach offers the following advantages: 1. Many individuals feel more comfortable, or are encouraged to participate and share ideas because of the interaction that 31 32 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUP takes place in a group. They receive support and from the realization that other participants have the same, or even more senous problems. assurance 2 Group members receive psychological rewards from the experience of helping others with their problems. This is the "helper therapy" principle. 3. Internal forces in groups (such as contagion, affectional ties, group pressure, leadership) can influence attitudes, values and behaviors, making groups potent instruments for effecting desired changes in the individual and the group. 4. The group lends itself to the use of a variety of activities that are not only relevant to the group's goals but also respond to the individual members' needs and interests (eg, group discussions, group dynarnics exercises, role play, audio-visuals). 5. The cooperative thinking process that takes place in a group, especially if guided properly, can hasten decision making on the part of its members. 6. Many individuals have similar problems that are best handled with, a group engaged in collective action instead of acting individually. 7. For certain purposes, it may be more economical to work with groups than with individuals. The best laid-out plans for working with individual clients on a basis are often not implemented in many agencies in the country because of staff constraints. The group approach should be consideredas an alternative, supplemented, if appropriate, with work with individual members The Urer of Groups 33 Given the preceding advantages, social workers form groups because they recognize that groups can be effectively utilized to bring about planned change. The following are specific reasons for using the group mode of service: 1. To use the group as the primary means of helping (eg., form a treatment/rehabilitation-oriented group for youth offenders in a correctional institution); 2. To augment individual methods (eg., form a counseling group to reinforce treatment goals in a one-to- one hel- ping relationship); 3. To augment work with individual families (e.g., organize a parents' group); 4. To augment community methods (eg, form a "core group" to facilitate community problem-solving); and 5. To work with groups in the context of intergroup app roaches at the community level (eg, help a group to become effective in coalitions of various community groups toward defined objectives). Uses of Groups Since social workers use the group approach for many reasons and we also realize that there are many advantages found in this mode of service delivery, let us now study how social workers can use groups. There are no clear-cut rules that tell us when or when not to use groups. We know, however, that the group approach is not useful for all client problems. Margaret E. 34 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Hartford's suggestion on the use of groups can serve as a helpful frame of reference. The targets for what she calls a "common-sense classification" are (1) the individual mem- bers; (2) problems in interpersonal relationships; (3) a small system in the neighborhood, community, or institution; and (4) large systems of institutions, regions, state, or nation. On the basis of social science theoretical formulae and studies, Hartford offers the following categories of group use: For effect on participants socialization resocialization; acquiring or changing concept of self, identity, motivation; attitude formation and change, formation and modification of values and beliefs; behavioral change; achieving a sense of belonging and support; education. Many social workers today are employed in settings in which the primary purpose for using the group mode is to effect desired changes on the part of the group members. One example of this is the work being done in child-caring institutions for former street children. The children are provided with group experiences that are intended to help them leam or re-learn positive attitudes and values and be motivated to give up street life. Another example is the work going on with groups of disadvantaged women in many community social agencies pursuing developmental goals. Through the groups the women are helped to learn new knowledge and skills that not only help them become better wives and mothers but also improve their self-esteem which, in turn, leads to even more positive results like the women becoming contributing members in their res pective communities. The Use of Group 35 2. For collective problem-solving, work on common or joint tasks, particularly in the area of ideas, group thinking, cognitive, emotional, or social, or individual, group, or social situation. Many social work groups are organized because there are people who need help in dealing with their common concerns or problems. In many communities, social workers form resident groups who want to undertake specific projects like the construction of a multi-purpose cornmunity center, or the building of safe footpaths for school children in the, barangay, or obtaining the needed resources for their group income-generating business enterprise. Many practitioners, on the other hand, are working with groups in institutions like those for unwed teenage mothers for whom a guided group experience can help them decide whether to keep their babies or give them up for adoption, and also help them resolve problems like family rejection, returning to school or finding employment, and others. Many social workers today are also working with groups who need help in dealing with crisis situations like male heads of households who are confronted with, the effects of disasters on themselves as well as their families, and women who are victims of domestic violence. 3. For change in the social situation or conditions outside the group. modification of the institution or social system within which the group exists or of the social situation - including the community or society through pressure, dissemination of information, or organization; modification of attitudes of outsiders. 36 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Many practitioners tend to think of social action only in terms of large-scale community organizing when in fact a great deal of such activity is being undertaken by small groups who want to change something in their situations which they see as the cause of their difficulty or problem. Two examples of such group efforts stand out among many that have been described to me by social workers. One is about how a group of mothers in a remote rural area in the Mountain Province was able to pressure their town mayor to order the closure of a gam- bling den in the area. The gambling den was operating very near the school premises, resulting in school truancy and other problems on the part of their teen-age children like hanging around with undesirable characters and taking alcoholic drinks. The other example is about how a group of eight patients in a hospital ward succee- ded in making the hospital administration change the rules pertaining to the visiting hours for patients. The rule seemed to have been established to respond to the convenience of the hospital personnel and did not take into consideration the constraints faced by the patients relatives, many of whom come from distant places. In both examples, the goals were achieved with the worker serving primarily as a guide and enabler. How Groups Effect Change There is a wide selection of social science literature that inform us about how groups bring about change. Of these, 1 think Dorwin Cartwright's three ways of viewing how groups enter into the process of change are particularly relevant:3 The User of Group 37 In the first view, the group is seen as a source of influence over its members. Efforts to change behavior can be supported or blocked by pressures on members stemming from the group. To make constructive use of these pressures the group must be a medium of change In the second view, the group itself becomes the target of change. To change the behavior of individuals it may be necessary to change the leadership, its emotional atmosphere, or its stratification into cliques and hierar chies. Even though the gods may be to change the behavior of individuals, the target of change becomes the group. In the third view, it is recognized that many changes of behavior can be brought about only by the organized efforts of groups as agents of change. The Group as Medium of Change If the group is a "medium of change" the target of influence is the individual member, and the source of that influence is the group (eg, the members' interaction with each other, the worker and the interaction with the members). Guided group processes are utilized to help members of the group with their particular problems. An example of this would be youngsters whose disadvantaged upbringing has prevented them from learning the norms of the larger society, or who may have learned these but for some reason, have forgotten them. Others may require guidance in developing their sense of identity or in enhancing their feeling of be- longingness and self-esteem. There are also those who may need help in the areas of interpersonal relationships, moti- vation, and learning. In all these situations, the group serves as a small social system whose influence can be guided by the social worker so as to induce desired changes among individual participants. Thus, the group becomes a medium of change. 38 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS The Group as Target of Change It may also be necessary for the group as a whole or certain aspects of the group to change in order to effect change in its members, Robert Vinter calls this "indirect means of influence" where practitioner interventions are used to effect modifications in group conditions which, in turn, affect the members. These conditions include the group's composition, climate, structure (including size, governing and operating procedures, and sub-groups) and processes. Use of such means of influence is unique to group work because the group serves as the "action system".5 Thus, the group's size may have to be changed if it is affecting the quality of member-member and worker-member interactions and relationship, and a highly formal or autocratic leadership style may have to be modified if it is blocking individual participation and group decision making. These and other changes in different aspects of the group system often have to be undertaken in order to achieve desired effects on the individual members as defined by their treatment or helping goals. When these are done, the group becomes the target of change. The Group as Agent of Change The concept of the group as "agent of change" refers to the active involvement of the group in efforts to modify, or redirect features or forces in its social environment which make demands, create pressures, and impose constraints on the group which can have adverse effects on its development and goal achievement. In many cases, change in the individual or group can only come about after the social environment has been modified or changed. The Uses of Groups 39 The use of the group as an agent of change is done not only to supplement the worker's own efforts, but to enable the group to be an active player in its own goal-achieving process. Such an experience, constantly repeated, helps to develop in the group members a sense of autonomy and confidence which is what ultimately leads to human empowerment, a priority value in social work. Vinter and Galinsky state that a group's social environ- ment includes the (a) separate social affiliations and personal environments of the group's members (ie., family, school, etc.) and (b) objects, persons and other units collectively encountered by the group as a social entity (e.g., the guards in a correctional institution, the houseparents in a rehabilitation center, local officials who promulgate and enforce rules).. These two environments often overlap (such as in the case of a group whose members all reside in the same institution) but they are also, in many cases, mutually exclusive. Individual group members, on their own, or with en- couragement from the worker may want to modify some conditions in their personal environments. Group attention can be focused on these, with the members sharing past experiences, ideas on appropriate behavior, and problem- solving tasks. In the case of homogeneous groups, individual members often find that they have many common experiences, so, that the group's efforts in dealing with one member's personal situation are also directly relevant to the other members' own situations. The group's effort at modifying conditions in its social environment which impinge on the whole group may relate to varied concerns such as the lack or absence of essential 40 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS resources (eg, medical supplies in a government hospital), unreasonable agency policies and rules, non- observance of laws and regulations, negative attitudes of service providers, and hostile attitudes of the outside community. The worker provides the necessary guidance to the group in its efforts at being an agent of change. The change it seeks is done through information dissemination, persuasion, bargaining or nego- tiation, pressure, confrontation, and other change techniques The worker may have to perform varied roles in relation to a group that seeks to modify its social environment. These roles can include being an information-giver, facilitator, mediator, counselor, adviser, catalyst, and consultant. The group's ability to act as an agent of change is affected by the opportunities, facilities and constraints created or imposed by its own environment. These opportunities and facilities include access to technical and material resources, provision of physical facilities for group meetings, changes in work schedules to encourage attendance in group meetings, etc. The constraints, on the other hand, might be imposed by bureaucratic processes which discourage collective action and create additional problems, or legal and other restrictions on group activity. A reciprocal relationship exists between intragroup factors and conditions, and the group's immediate and broader environment. More specifically, a group exerts greater influence on its environment (eg, the social agency) if group siveness obtains through individual acceptance or recognition cohe- of the group's leadership, common values, and established norms. When such degree of cohesiveness gets perceived by and gains adequate recognition from the larger environment, the group tends to be all the more influential. Similarly, an environment, to be influential on a group, has to be perceived by the latter as supportive of its efforts to change, or concerned The User of Grap 41 about the group's well-being. The give-and-take relationship between the two systems help the group become more effec- tive in achieving its goals. An Integrated Approach to Work with Groups Given existing social and cultural realities in the Philippines, we cannot overemphasize the interdependent relationship of the group and its environment. Thus, the practitionerwho wants to be effective in the use of the group approach, should be prepared for the challenge of working with a group on an intragroup level (the group as medium and target of change), and also to engage in extragroup activities that are essential to group learning and problem-solving with the group as the main resource (the group as an agent of change). This stance can very well be called an integrated approach to work with groups in which the worker uses the group as a medium of change, as a target of change, and as an agent of change. This does not mean that the worker must use every group as a medium, target, and agent of change in order to be of help. A generalist orientation to social work practice also does not mean that every practitioner in the country is expected to engage individuals, groups and communities in the helping process every time he is dealing with one client system's problem or situation. What is expected is that a social worker will do what is necessary and appropriate, not withholding any effort that would make for more effective helping. Keeping in mind the preceding discussion on the uses of groups in social work will make for a better appreciation of the models and approaches in work with groups which will be presented later..42 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Questions for Discussion What social welfare settings in the country offer services to groups? Who are the persons involved in these ser- vices, and what exactly do they, do? 2. In what way is groupwork undertaken by professionally trained social workers in social work agencies different from the services offered to groups by other helping persons? 3. Discuss the major uses of groups in social work. Provide illustrations of each. 4. Explain in your own words the three concepts about how groups effect change. Provide, illustrations of each. 5. Comment on social work with groups in the country today in the context of the "uses of groups" and "how groups effect change" which you learned from this chapter. Special Activities. 1. Interview a person (who is not a social worker) in any social welfare agency who is directly engaged in work with any group. Ask about the goals/purposes, activities, processes/procedures, techniques, etc. which guide his work. Interview a social worker in a social work agency who has done or is doing social groupwork. Ask about the goals/purposes, activities, processes/procedures, techni ques, etc. which guide his work. The Uses of Groups 43 Report on your two interviews. 2. Visit two social work agencies and in each agency, inter- view one social worker who has worked with groups. Share your learning (e.g., show your class notes) about the "uses of groups" and "how groups effect change." Discuss these with her, noting carefully his/her comments/reac tions. Report these in class. Recall your membership in any group in the recent past. Analyze your group experience in terms of what you have learned about the "uses of groups" and "how groups effect change." Write a short report on this. 44 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUP NOTES See Frank Riessman, "The Helper Therapy Principle," in Journal of Social Work, April 1965, pp. 27-34. Margaret E. Hartford, Groups in Social Work (New York: Columbu University Press, 1971), pp. 30-31. See "Achieving Change in People: Some Applications of Group Dynamics Theory" by Dorwin Cartwright, in Human Relations, 1951, IV. pp. 38-39. Paul Glasser, Rosemary Sarri, Robert D. Vinter, Individual Chang Through Small Groups (New York: The Free Press, 1974), pp. 25-83. Pincus and Minahan classifies into four types of social systems the people with whom the worker interacts in practice actions; the chent system, the target system, the action system, and the change agent system. See Appendix B. Glasser, Sarri, and Vinter, op.cit., p. 288. CHAPTER FOUR Phases in Group Development Introduction A group is "at least two people, but usually more, gathered with common purposes or like interests in a cognitive, affective, and social interchange in single or repeated encounters. These encounters are sufficient for the participants to form imp- ressions of one another, creating a set of norms for their functioning together, developing goals for their collective authority, evolving a sense of cohesion so that they think of themselves and are thought of by others as an entity distinct from all other collectivities." A simple collection of people is not a group. A group is not static, but a constantly moving and changing small system. It has a life of its own. It goes through different phases each of which has certain dynamics that a practitioner must understand and deal with whenever appro- priate and necessary in order to be effective in her inter- ventive work. This unit will be about the life of the group, ie.,. the phases in group development. Group phases are a natural aspect of group develop ment. These phases may be observed from the processes, internal structures, and culture of the group. (see Appendix A). All these make up the dynamics that characterize each phase in the group's development. 45 46 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS Why is knowledge of the phases in a group's develop ment important to a social worker working with a group? Knowledge of group phases allows the worker to recog nize, understand, and guide the phases from the beginning to the end of the group's functioning and existence. Such knowledge makes it possible for the worker to identify the actual stage where the group is when she enters the scene, thus providing her with diagnostic clues essential to more effective work with the group. Her knowledge also enables the worker to anticipate or predict certain events that can occur in the group and therefore helps her deal with them. Her understanding of what takes place during each phase allows her to relate one phase to another, to plan interven- tions that are appropriate, and to act on them purposefully. Understanding can also help the worker to avoid getting confused and feeling insecure with the appearance of certain phenomena in the group. Her knowledge of the phases alerts her to the processes that she can observe during each phase, and influence them, if necessary. Conceptions of Group Phases There are many conceptions or schemes for describing the stages or phases in group development.? Six of them are presented here (see Figure 1). These conceptions do not differ significantly, although some writers do not include the pre-group phase as part of group development, while others provide comparatively more specific descriptions of the middle stage of group life. The different conceptions show that all groups have a beginning, a middle, and an ending phase. These phases can be discerned. They are condensed in short-term groups, and certainly, are more apparent in long-term groups. There is Phases in Group Development 47 also agreement that the movement from one phase to the next is not linear and that the phases or stages are not clearly demarcated. In addition, movement to the next phase does not preclude the group's return to an earlier level of func- tioning, whether in closed groups or open groups. I also hasten to say that not all social work groups pass through each of these phases. For example, in a rehabilitation center for drug addicts, a group may already be in existence so that the group will not go through the "pre-group phase" anymore and just proceed with group formation. Figure 1 PHASES IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT Hadord Garland, Northen Sarri and Trecker Henry Jones and Galinsky Kolodny I. Pregroup I. I. Preparatory I. Origin Phase I. Initial Phase Preaffiliation stage A. Private Planning Pregroup Stage and II. Convening Phase Intake B. Public Pregroup Phase c. Convening Phase II.Group II. Orientation II. Formation I. Beginning III. Formation Formation Stage Phase II. Emergence Phase of some Group fellings, organization, and program III. Integration II. Power and III. Exploring III. III. IV. Conflict/ Disinteration, Control and Testing Intermediate Development Disequilibrium Reintegration III. Intimacy the group Phase I of bond, Phase IV. Revision purpose and Phase cohesiveness V. Intermediate Phase IV. Group IV. IV. Problem- VI. Maturation IV. Strong V. functioning Differentiation Solving and Phase group feeling, Maintenance and Stabilization goal Maintenance attainment Phase V. Decline in interest; less group feelin V. V. Separation V. VII. VI. Ending VI. Termination Termination Termination Stage Termination Phase Phase A. Pretermination Phase B. Termination The Phases In Group Development I have presented six of the numerous formulations about the phases in group development. Although there are more commonalities than differences in these formulations, I particularly like Hartford's formulation of five phases. I will now discuss this, using other social scientists' ideas and also drawing from my own experiences to elaborate on Hartford's five phases. The Pre-Group Phase The Pre-Group Phase is what happens and what the worker (or group organizer) does before a group is actually organized. Hartford describes this as actually consisting of three phases the Private Pre-Group Phase, the Public Pre-Group Phase, and the Convening Phase. The Private Pre-group Phase is the period when an idea occurs to one or more persons to organize a group for some Phans in Group Development 49 purpose. This can be agency volunteers or officers who think that group service is relevant to the agency's mission, a social worker who thinks a particular purpose can be best served through the group approach, or prospective participants who see the agency as having the capacity to offer a group program that can respond to their needs or concerns. The group does not yet exist and ideas or plans pertaining to any it are still in the mind of the organizer. The Private Pre-group Phase is followed by a decision to have a group and this decision is shared with others. This is the Public Pre-group Phase. Announcements are made, verbally or in writing. Fliers are sometimes sent to parties perceived as likely to be interested in the endeavor, including possible sources of referral. On the part of the social agency, the purpose and time frame of the group program and the criteria for group composition are usually already defined at this time. The agency practitioner now also has in mind what helping approaches or techniques will be utilized. All these are communicated to the prospective group members when pre-group and/or intake interviews are conducted. Sue Henry, who refers to these two phases as the "Initial Stage" contends that while there may be no group dynamics yet at this time, "the embryonic group will be by the workers actions in identifying the potential cast of characters and in projecting what the group will be like and how it can be moved toward attainment of its goals."4 Hufford submits that the original orientation that is given to the potential member during the Public Pre- group Phase will affect his expectations and the procedures that follow. These expectations may be in relation to the member- ship, the goals and the content or activities of the group. The importance of clarifying the individual membees expectations 50 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUP cannot be overemphasized. The reality of many agency groups disintegrating after a few sessions can often be traced to the group's loss of interest owing to their expectations not being met. The Convening Phase is when the prospective members, or some of them, meet for the first time. Hartford contends that they are still just an aggregate but the potential for becoming a group begins to materialize. The members at this time are sizing up the situation in terms of whether or not their expectations are going to be met. They engage in social rituals and amenities and varied behaviors may be observed such as restlessness, talkativeness, tension, and withdrawal as the participants judge each other. Feelings of resistance and ambivalence about committing themselves are natural during this phase, and these feelings can recur at other periods of their membership. The worker usually assumes a leading role during this phase. She uses appropriate activities to get the participants to connect with and be oriented to each other in order to facilitate the group's passage toward group formation. The worker also answers questions and clarifies expectations, and while honoring their struggle about joining or not joining, points out what positive consequences or gains can result from group, membership. The Group Formation Phase Unless the pre-group events lead to non-formation, this, second phase is the period when the group gets organized. The formation process may be achieved during one session Phases in Group Development 51 or many sessions depending on the members, their capacities, and the purpose of the group, among other things. Group goals and norms evolve and the group's role system begins to develop during this phase. Interpersonal ties begin to be evident and members start to be influenced or attempt to influence each other. While membership may not yet be stabilized, communication interaction patterns are observable and indicators of cohesion may already be evident. Sue, Henry states that the key dynamic of the formation stage is choosing to unite with others or, simply "union". This phase is the first of two periods of strong attachment to other members, to the group, and to the worker (the second period is the maintenance phase). In social work with groups, the practitioner continues to take a lead role in promoting communication and interaction between herself and the members and among the members of the group. She uses program media appropriate for this phase and responsive to the needs and interests of the group. A major aim at this time is to establish a pattern of member participation that will help the members to develop a beginn- ing sense of belonging to the group. There may be indications of some members "testing" the worker, i.e., her firmness (such as in the group's observance of agency rules), her patience (such as in dealing with members' negative or aggressive behavior), and her neutrality (such as in responding to the ideas of members representing different economic or educational backgrounds). Members are usually sensitive to the way the worker responds to their behavior. This can motivate them to remain in or withdraw from the group. 52 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUP The Group Integration, Disintegration or Reintegration Phase After the group appears to have been formed and now proceeds about its work, many things happen. Interpersonal ties increase and a sense of group bond or "we feeling" begins to become apparent. Goal- directed activities engage the members since by this time group goals shall have been clarified. In the case of developmental and task groups the role and status structures usually begin to emerge, and task and emotional leaders can already be identified. Members can show a great deal of enthusiasm for the group's activities, and while they may not be equally participative, the worker is optimistic that the group will be able to achieve its goals. All these are aspects of the group's movement toward integration. The groups developmental path is however not always quite so smooth. When you have a group of people in face-to- face interaction, especially if this is over an extended period of time, conflicts are bound to occur. They may occur over disagreement on issues, or interpersonal problems. Members may openly express anger, frustration or hostility and with- draw from participation. Tuckman calls this phase "storming, the appearance of conflict around "interpersonal issues and expressed resistance to group influence and task requirements." Most of the social work authors who have written on the subject attribute the conflicts to issues of leadership, decision-making power, status and control (Garland, Jones and Kolodny call this the "Power and Control" phase; see Fig- 1). They happen at this time because the members have already located themselves in the group and there is no more need to put best foot forward. They know each other better as they have had time to observe each other and form different opinions and conclusions. They are now also more aware of and sensitive to what is happening in the group and Phases in Group Development 53 the effects on the members. They no longer feel inhibited in expressing their thoughts and feelings, or even in controlling their impulses. There will be members who will want certain things to be different from the way they are in the group, who are unhappy about interpersonal relationships, their development as a group, the leadership style, the activities, etc. Any of these can lead to conflicts. Sue Henry says that conflict in a group is really com- petition for the dominance of one's needs and desires over those of all the group members. To her, conflict is really over ownership of the group, ie, each member wants to fashion the group according to his or her own design. The struggle or conflict may be serious and if not resolved can lead to the group's total disintegration. On the other hand, if the conflict is minor, the consequence may be a state of disequilibrium which the group may be able to overcome. In social agency context, this depends on both the group and the worker. If both sides act in ways appropriate to the conflict situation, the group can turn out to be stronger and more cohesive because of the experience. The process of handling conflicts that occur in a group requires the worker to be prepared to bring such conflicts into the open for discussion and resolution. The group, with the help of the worker, may have to restate its goals, modify its structure, establish new rules for operating, define/modify norms, and redefine tasks (remember the "group as target of change?"). The efforts can make the group move forward to a reintegration phase. This usually means a higher level of inte- gration, which may mean more stable relationships, a more stable group structure, a greater influence of the group upon the members, clearer norms, higher levels of interdependence 54 SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS and cooperation among members, more awareness of the significance of the group experience, and a state of equilibrium. Sometimes, in order to save a group from total disin- tegration, certain individuals may have

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