Social Structure PDF

Social structure Pre-existing patterns of social behavior– also the way in which society is organized into predictable relationships  Social construction Social construction is the idea that reality is a product of the cultural and historical time frame. Reality is more a mat...

Social structure Pre-existing patterns of social behavior– also the way in which society is organized into predictable relationships  Social construction Social construction is the idea that reality is a product of the cultural and historical time frame. Reality is more a matter of agreement among people within the culture than something inherent in the natural world. Thomas theorem (1923) states that if an individual believes that something is real, then that thing is real in its consequences.  Racial formation theory Omi & Winant (1989) argue that race is a social construction in that  Each society has certain variables to determine who fits in a given racial category.  Racial categories have changed throughout US history.  Individuals can claim racial identity– society may also reject these claims based on their standards. Nothing “essential” about race that would rely on biological indicators to determine behavior.  Racial formation theory Most of what our society refers to as “racial differences” are actually more like ethnic differences. Ethnicgroups are groups set apart by national origin or distinctive cultural pattern.  Assume that behavior is learned and influenced by interactions, not determined by biology. Ethnicity is also a social construction.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VnfKgffCZ7 U https://www.vox.com/2015/1/13/7536655/race- myth-debunked  Social construction of reality Peter Berger & Thomas Luckmann (1966) proposed a three-stage model that could explain the construction of reality. 1. Externalization- In the first stage a person develops an idea about the world and attempts to convince others they are correct. Moral entrepreneurs (Becker, 1963) are “crusaders”, often linked to social institutions, who feel the current version of reality is unacceptable and attempt to “sell” their version in its place.  Social construction of reality 2. Objectivation- Some of the externalized ideas begin to be seen as “fact”.  Ideas take on a life of their own apart from those who created them. In this stage, people hear externalized ideas, consider that they may be true, and ask others for their opinion. Most crucial stage in the process as not only are ideas at the point where they are being considered for “truthfulness” the ideas are also being spread. Urban legends are fantastic myths told as though true that tend to show the world is a dangerous place and/or reinforce existing norms and values.  Social construction of reality 3. Internalization- If the ideas reach this stage, they are now seen as true by many of those who heard the ideas.  We lose awareness that “reality” is just someone’s ideas and we treat the ideas as though they are part of the natural environment. Once accepted as true the ideas begin to affect the beliefs and behaviors of the individuals. If many people hear and internalize these ideas, we get people behaving in patterns.  Through nothing more than interaction between people, any idea can become “fact” and affect social behavior.  Elements of structure: Status Status is any of a range of defined positions within a large group or society. Ascribed status is a position assigned by society with no regard for unique characteristics or abilities of the individual.  Ascribed statuses are characteristics that society has deemed important and would like to know about anyone within society.  An individual has little control over their ascribed status.  Ascribed variables Race refers to groups set apart from other groups due to obvious, non sex-based, physical differences. Ethnicity refers to groups set apart by national origin or distinctive cultural pattern. Class refers to status gained through the accumulation of economic success and wealth. (parents’ class is ascribed) Gender is the idea of being male or female. The norms, expectations associated with “maleness” and femaleness” with a given culture. Sexual Orientation refers to an enduring patterns of attraction to those of some sex. Ableness refers to physical abilities or impairments that create different challenges for an individual.  Status Achieved status is a position attained largely through effort.  You have to “do something” to be awarded an achieved status. Intersectionality is a concept used to describe the ways in which forms of inequality and stratification (racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, ableism, classism, etc.) are interconnected and should not be examined separately from one another.  These stratifying variables are often ascribed. Master status is a dominant status that comes to override all features of other statuses.  Elements of structure: Roles Statuses allow a variety of social locations for each individual.  Based on these social locations, expectations for the individual’s behavior are created. Social roles are sets of expectations for individuals who occupy a given social position or status.  Roles grow out of status locations.  Zimbardo prison experiment (1971)  Gender roles Sex is the biological differences between males and females Gender is the idea of being male or female. The norms, expectations associated with “maleness” and “femaleness” with a given culture Gender roles are the expectations regarding proper behavior, attitudes and activities for males and females. Men are supposed to be successful, aggressive, and self-reliant and initiate sexual activity while not showing vulnerability or openness (instrumental role). Women are supposed to be caring, emotional, nurturing, passive and accepting (expressive role).  Role conflict/strain Every person has a variety of statuses, and therefore a variety of expectations for their behavior. Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the responsibilities of a particular role in his or her life. Imposter syndrome is loosely defined as doubting your abilities and feeling like a fraud. It disproportionately affects high-achieving people, who find it difficult to accept their own accomplishments and question whether they’re deserving of accolades. “Comparison is the thief of joy.” --Theodore Roosevelt Role conflict is when the expectations of two or more roles end up calling for contradictory behavior.  Roles- Stryker Sheldon Stryker (1980) proposed a theory of self-concept called identity theory. Identity refers to all the roles in ones self- concept and the meanings attached to those roles. Stryker argues that all the roles (and the identities that accompany them) are arranged in a hierarchy by an individual. The most salient (important) identities are at the top of the hierarchy, and affect the thought, actions, feeling, beliefs of the individual most often.  The more salient the role, the less likely you would be to act in a way that would go against the expectations of that role.  Roles- Stryker Commitment is the cost of no longer continuing to hold a given identity.  Interactional Commitment is the extensiveness of relationships that would be foregone where one to no longer play a given role.  Including people you know through that role and people who know you in that role.  Affective Commitment are the emotional costs attached to departure from a given role. High commitment, leads to high salience, which leads to:  Spending more time in that role.  Seeking out opportunities to play that role.  Defining neutral situations as appropriate for that role. Stryker also argued that the identity hierarchy was relatively stable across time and situation and only changed when salient identities were added or subtracted.  Roles- Goffman Erving Goffman argued that roles were far more situational (and therefore less stable) and were simply played to give off a good impression to whichever audience we are performing.  All of this coincides with Goffman’s ideas on dramaturgy (viewing human social behavior as theatre). Impression management where we attempt to give off the “version of ourselves” that gives us the best opportunity for success in a given situation (Goffman 1959).  Roles Goffman saw our self-concept as constantly changing and based totally on the audience to which we are performing.  All interaction is based on the assumption that we are all managing impressions. Goffman believes we have no stable self- concept outside of the situation we are in at the time.  Even if we did have one, it wouldn’t matter because most people only know us in limited contexts. Stryker argues that our self-concept is strong, stable, and only changes when radical changes happen in our lives.