SOCI 413 Notes.pdf

SOCI 413 Notes Fall Term 2024 Dr. Akram Wednesday, September 4, 2024 Nothing int...

SOCI 413 Notes Fall Term 2024 Dr. Akram Wednesday, September 4, 2024 Nothing introductory slides Friday, September 6, 2024 Chapter 1: Introduction Qualitative researchers use a variety of different methods in an attempt to fully understand the everyday lives and social settings of the people they study: In-depth interviewing Focus groups Participant observation Document analysis The goal of qualitative research is to develop a rich understanding of the social processes involved in everyday life In comparison to quantitative research, qualitative approach: Allow the people under study to define what is central and important in their experience Can help uncover details that allow the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the participants Research participants often shape the focus of the analysis - referred to as a participatory approach: We use participant rather than subject to describe those we interview or observe This is an important strength of qualitative methodology Qualitative researchers often use experiences from everyday life to develop their research ideas -> likewise, what they have learned as qualitative researchers also influences how they live their daily lives and how they think about the social world around them Monday, September 9, 2024 Three Core Qualitative Concepts 1. Self-reflexivity Considering who the researcher is and how their positionality and experiences impact the design, implementation, and interpretation of the research 2. Context Considering how to make sense of a space (history, etc.) 3. Thick description Considering how to interpret conclusions based on rich, descriptive data Qualitative Research Iceberg Method Methodology Theory Philosophical Foundations Philosophical Assumptions of Qualitative Research Wednesday, September 11, 2024 Inductive Reasoning in Qualitative Research Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning (From Core Concepts Video) Science is a unique way of seeing and investigating the world around us. The scientific method is a process of gathering empirical data, creating theories, and rigorously testing these theories. Some sociological research begins with general theories, which offer big picture ideas. Deductive reasoning starts from broad theories about the social world but proceeds to break them down into more specific and testable hypotheses. Inductive reasoning starts from specific data, such as interviews, observations, or field notes, which may focus on a single community or event, and endeavors to identify larger patterns from which to derive more general theories. Sociologists employ the scientific method in both quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research gathers data that can be quantified and offers insight into broad patterns of social behavior. For example, what percentage of US adults spank their children? Questionnaires tend to be quantitative and used on both the macro and meso level. Interviews, observational studies, and content analysis usually produce qualitative data or a blend of quantitative and qualitative data. Qualitative research is data that cannot be converted into numbers, focusing instead on generating in-depth knowledge of social life, institutions, and processes. For example, why parents in particular demographic groups are more or less likely to spank their kids. It relies on the gathering of data through methods such as focus groups, participant and non-participant observation, and interviews. Generally, population samples in qualitative research are small, because they focus on in-depth understanding. Some studies include both quantitative and qualitative data. When designing a research project, a researcher must consider which research method will give the best results for the project and is most feasible for the research circumstances, experience, and budget. If you wish to obtain basic information from a relatively large population in a short period of time, then a survey is the best method to use. If you want to obtain detailed information about a smaller group of people, then interviews might be more beneficial. Usually, sociological researchers use multiple methods. Qualitative Research Qualitative research uses an iterative approach Iterative -> going back to theory, back and forth approach Theory is necessary for qualitative research “Theories are simply bundled systems of principles that strive to explain or make sense of certain phenomena” (Tracy, 2014, p.49) Some theoretical approaches that typically use qualitative research: Feminist theory Community-engaged research or participatory action research Critical theory What is Theory? “To look at the world differently” (hooks, p.60) “Theory as intervention, as a way to challenge the status quo” (hooks, p.61) “The “lived” experience of critical thinking, of reflection and action” (hooks, p.61) Monday, September 16 , 2024 & Wednesday, September 18, 2024 Why is it Important to Ask Questions? Qualitative research depends on the development of questions The way we ask questions determines what kind of answers we get ○ These answers become our data in qualitative research ○ Researchers depend on research participants to answer our questions and provide insight into why they have particular opinions or act in certain ways Quantitative and qualitative researchers ask different types of questions based on different assumptions about the nature of reality Underlying Assumptions & The Research Process Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches: Differences in Basic Assumptions Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Research should focus on human lived reality Research should focus on theory development and testing Inductive reasoning (specific -> general) leads Deductive reasoning (general -> specific) leads to understanding to truth Participants’ meanings are key Researchers’ meanings are key Researchers must identify the definition of the Researchers must find “objective” definitions situation Social settings are highly complex and can A valid experiment should arrive at the same affect the outcome of an experiment conclusion no matter where it is performed  Understanding exists in our agreed-upon Truth is an objective reality experiences Quantitative Approaches Quantitative approaches were first developed for the social sciences by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) who argued that researchers could adapt the quantitative methods of science for use of in the social sciences Quantitative approaches were developed in accordance with positivism, which has three principal attributes 1. Adherence to a realist perspective 2. Trust in causal knowledge 3. Reliance on deductive reasoning A realist perspective -> assumes that reality is out there, waiting to be discovered, or, in the case of psychology, reality is in there waiting to be discovered Positivist Approach For positivists, the goal of social science is to uncover general “laws” of human behaviour Because they believe that all interactions involve objective causes and effects, positivists believe that objectivity is achievable is social-science research Positivist quantitative researchers often rely on statistical research methods They utilize deductive reasoning where they operationalize a theory into a testable hypothesis prior to data collection and analysis Causal knowledge -> assumptions that the world is made up of causes and effects that are external to the individual, observable, and measurable Qualitative Questions Positivism dominated the social sciences for nearly 100 years before social scientists began to question the assumptions of this approach For instance, researchers began to question how an interviewer’s gender identity or cultural background might affect a research subject’s responses and, in turn, how a subject’s gender identity or cultural background might influence how they respond to an interviewer In time, sociologists began to reject positivist assumptions and express a renewed interest in qualitative approaches to research Many qualitative researchers believe in the importance of two concepts developed in the first half of the 20th century Verstehen or “sympathetic understanding” ○ Used by Max Weber (1949) to indicate that researchers should strive to see the world from their research participant’s perspective Definition of the Situation ○ Basic concept of symbolic interactionism that states that, in any given situation, an individual’s behaviour is influenced more by their understanding of the situation than by any objective aspects of the situation itself ○ ex) -> Social groups or cultures often share definitions of the situation Symbolic Interactionism Many contemporary qualitative researchers are also influenced by the principles of symbolic interactionism First formulated by Herbert Blumer (1900-1987), based on the theoretical approaches of George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)  It is a theoretical perspective that assumes that research participants understand their everyday lives, and seeks to discover how meanings are shared and created through social interaction Charles Horton Cooley (1902) is a prominent example of how symbolic interactionism evolved. Cooley referred to the self we define through this process as the “looking-glass self” Many later researchers have shared Cooley’s belief that our sense of self is result of our perceptions of how others see us A 21st Breaching Experiment Ethnomethodology -> an approach in which researchers study people to discover how unwritten or invisible rules allow them to go about everyday life Breaching experiment -> an experiment using the ethnomethodological perspective in which the researcher breaks one of the unspoken laws of interaction Example; Deborah Landry, a criminologist at the university of Ottawa, carried out a breaching experiment with her students The students were interested in how people would react to a flash mob, and they hoped to “make people uncomfortable for the purpose of later analysis.” “Some pedestrians pretended we were not there but many others chose to play with us.” The “transgression” of norms also had unexpected effects on the students themselves as they braved being out of the ordinary and contravening the accepted way of being in a public place The Research Process Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches: Differences in Typical Methods Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Involves little or no advance knowledge of the Involves advance knowledge of the type(s) of type(s) of data to be collected data to be collected Allows participants to define how the study Minimizes participants’ input into types of progresses and what the data mean data collected Strives for accuracy: researchers do not invent Strives for reliability: researchers make sure the actor’s viewpoint the findings can be replicated Often involves in-depth interviews Often involves questionnaires or surveys Relies on subjective observations Relies on objective experiments Includes a literature review at the end of study Includes a literature review at the outset of study Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods The research process often starts in different places for qualitative and quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers often follow an inductive approach, where they start with the social world and then develop a theory that is consistent with what they see. Quantitative researchers generally follow a deductive approach, where they begin with a theory and then test that theory in the empirical world. The qualitative process tends to be emergent and more flexible because qualitative researchers often begin collecting data before they fully define their specific research question. Data collection and analysis often occur simultaneously. Qualitative researchers often start with broad questions and narrow them down as they discover what is important. When researchers get to the point where they are no longer learning anything new, they have reached a stage called theoretical saturation. This flexibility allows qualitative researchers to examine new ideas and themes that emerge as they go along Mixed Methods Research An approach that combines qualitative methods with quantitative methods Emphasizes the strengths of both types of methods Some argue that this approach can result in research findings that are more complete than could be arrived at by either method on its own One of the biggest challenges for such research is to find ways to truly integrate the findings so that the qualitative components do not disappear in the analysis Indigenous Methodologies Indigenous resurgence: a paradigm that includes: rootedness in the land, accountability to the community, transformation accomplished through awakening to the impact of colonization; and through knowledge that is transformational and involves connectedness to the land. Much research with Indigenous peoples in recent years has subscribed to the practice of two-eyed seeing. Identifying Researcher Perspectives and General Assumptions Our assumptions about social life and society influence how we approach topics and interpret data when we do research. All researchers make assumptions, but the best researchers avoid making careless or unfounded assumptions in their research. Even though qualitative researchers reject the positivist claim that research can be completely unbiased, we still need to reflect on how our own biases, perspectives, and assumptions influence our work. For example, the primary assumption of symbolic interactionism is that we, as social actors, create, or construct, social reality. Generic Social Process Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research is not in the business of seeking generalizable findings. At the same time, qualitative researchers do recognize that certain social processes are often consistent across different social settings. Generic social processes are aspects of interaction that transcend individual situations. They include: acquiring perspectives achieving identity doing activity developing relationships experiencing emotionality achieving linguistic fluency Generally, researchers look for generic social processes within a specific group of individuals. By observing the behaviour of members within this population, researchers can identify common elements of a process that are shared across that population. Identifying a generic social process can help a researcher expand the scope of the research project to uncover hidden aspects of the participants’ collective experience. How Researchers’ Assumptions Affect their Research Questions The questions we ask are extremely important to the research process. The questions behind qualitative research are motivated by a researcher’s assumption that research should shed light on people’s real lived experiences. The types of questions we ask help determine the type of information we receive. For instance, when we ask a “how” question, we usually discover “why,” but we also have the potential to learn much more about other experiences. Qualitative research questions are often flexible and not fully defined until the researcher has spent some time “in the field” or with their research participants. For this reason, qualitative researchers must be very detailed in their field observations because they do not always know what they will find when they enter a research situation. Friday, September 20, 2024 Strategies for Designing Research The Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination is the capacity to recognize the connection between individuals and their social context It distinguishes between private troubles and public issues It is used to understand the connection between biography and history It allows us to develop an understanding of how the social context shapes many phenomena that we often treat as individual problems Serendipity in Qualitative Research Sometimes there is no rhyme or reason to how researchers stumble upon their research topics When they discover them by accident, perhaps by a chance encounter or meeting we call this serendipity Serendipity in general is a lucky coincidence Researchers often experience an unexpected, spontaneous moment of inspiration that leads them to discover a social setting, research area, or theoretical insight while no actively looking for one Research Design Loftland and Loftland (1995) recommended “starting where you are” when selecting a topic Not all topics are appropriate for all research Be honest about your strengths and limitations as a researcher; make sure the project you choose is “doable” Time and resources (e.g. money, research assistance) are important considerations All qualitative research questions address puzzling issues that allows participants to explain their perspectives through their own point of view It is helpful to think of your theoretical stance as a jumping-off point for your research Consulting the Literature All researchers consult the literature prior to conducting their studies Having a good idea of what has been published on your topic will help you to situate you study within the greater body of researcher Quantitative researchers -> read literature related to the topic to develop hypotheses to test in the process of research, and then collect data to see if they can confirm the hypotheses Qualitative researchers -> read broadly in the area they are interested in, and about similar social settings, to help sensitize themselves to the issue they plan to study Can You Challenge the Hierarchy of Credibility In Your Research? The hierarchy of credibility is the common belief that those with the highest social status are seen as more credible than those is subordinate or marginal social positions (Becker 1967) Qualitative sociologists often seek to give a voice to members of these marginalized groups who are frequently ignored, those at the bottom of the traditional hierarchy of credibility Monday, September 23, 2024 Ethics & A Moral Compass Ethical Principles of Research in Canada An ethics code is a code that defines the character of a system (e.g. a professional research system) in which morals are applied Morals are an individual’s sense of what is “right” or “proper” in relation to his or her personal character Research Ethics Board (REB) -> a body that assesses the ethical implications of research studies and has the power to approve or reject a research proposal. All Canadian researchers who conduct research involving humans must submit their plans to a research ethics board for approval before carrying out their study In Canada, ethical considerations for researchers working with human participants are laid out in the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS) The TCPS states that it is the researcher’s duty to preserve the dignity of her or his participants by adhering to the three ethical principles 1. Respect for persons 2. Concern for human welfare 3. Justice Ethical Principles In general, three ethical principles from the basis for many research ethics code: 1. Respect for persons 2. Concern for human welfare 3. Justice These principles are set out in Canada’s official guide to conducting ethical research, the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans Core Ethics Principles Respect for persons incorporates the dual moral obligations to respect autonomy and to protect those with developing, impaired, or diminished autonomy Respecting autonomy means giving due deference to a person’s judgement and ensuring that the person is free to choose without interference Concern for human welfare Factors such as individual physical, mental, and spiritual health, as well as physical, economic, and social circumstances Justice The obligation to treat people fairly and equitably The primary goal of qualitative researchers is to respect the dignity of your participants How can you build a moral compass? ○ Enter the research situation with an open mind.  ○ Ask “how” questions rather than “why” questions. ○ Acknowledge the various constraints that can intrude in a social setting that might also affect respect for the person. ○ Be mindful of the fears that a research participant has by virtue of his or her precarious personal and social position. ○ Use an approach that fits the circumstances of the individual participant, group, community, and/or culture. ○ Forgo a “remedial” attitude: avoid trying to “fix” things. ○ Try to form authentic relationships with your participants. Ethical Challenges in Gaining Access to Participants & Settings Most qualitative researchers will need to explain their presence to those whose lives they are planning to study Generally, researchers will contact a community leader (known as a gatekeeper) to obtain permission for their projects The ethics involved in studying a private organization, a corporation, or governmental agencies and programs are often more complex Researchers may also have to gain formal approval prior to conducting research in these settings You must consider the ethical implications of your interactions with your research participants. Your very presence has an impact on the community Fieldwork Conducting Covert Field Research Covert field research presents its own unique ethical considerations that need to be carefully assessed prior to undertaking this type of research Covert research -> is not to be confused with “deception “ in research Deception involves lying, at least in the initial stages of research Covert research implies the need for protection from danger, both for the individuals under study and for the research Many researchers support covert research as an ethical option in a variety of closed settings and as a means to achieving total anonymity where necessary Other Ethical Considerations While less ambiguous than field research, ethical considerations are present while interviewing and transcribing. Like fieldwork, the principle of informed consent is paramount to conducting interview work.  Qualitative researchers may be uncomfortable with the use of signed consent forms for a number of ethical reasons. To overcome these obstacles, many qualitative researchers may ask for their participants’ verbal consent after providing them with the necessary information that would have been found on a consent form. Unobtrusive methods such as content analysis involve few ethical issues, but no method is completely void of ethical considerations. Content analysts should: be careful to avoid misrepresenting findings be careful to not allow their own tastes and opinions to guide their analysis consider comparing notes with a colleague to lessen the impact of potential bias and/or presentism Presentism: the belief that today’s standards are a valid guide to studying older texts and social phenomena Ethics in Data Analysis & Writing Qualitative researchers should strive to be faithful to their data when conducting ethical data analysis. Rather than contorting data to fit a theory or theories, you have an obligation to “listen” carefully to the data, much of which has been generously donated by research participants. ○ Let the data speak to you: trust in your research participants’ perspectives will allow you to faithfully represent the community under study. The process of writing up data requires a great deal of ethical reflection -> here, your goal is to protect the dignity of your reader. ○ Write concisely and with clarity. Using the active voice, first person narrative, avoiding jargon and using short, straightforward sentences in your write-up will show your reader that you are not trying to confuse the issues. Offer a balanced view. ○ By offering a balanced view throughout your written account, you allow the reader to make up his or her own mind about your data and your findings. Ethics Scenarios 1. You participants provides written consent to participate in your project. You schedule an interview at a time and place convenient to them. You sit down and begin the interview. After the first question, the participants tells you they do not feel comfortable participating any more. How do you proceed ethically? 2. You have completed your interview. You have saved the audio recording file in a password protected folder on your computer hard drive. You then realize that you have accidentally opened a scam email and may have infected your computer hard drive with a virus, which may have access to the contents on your hard drive. How do you proceed ethically? 3. Although not written into your interview guide, during the interview, the participant discusses a traumatic incident that becomes very emotional for them. Clearly, they are in distress. How do you proceed ethically?