SOCI 201 Final Notes (3) PDF

Summary

These notes cover social science concepts related to race, ethnicity, and gender. They analyze different theories and perspectives from various sociologists.

Full Transcript

Race and Ethnicity II: Objectives: ​ Outline primordialism as per van den Berghe: ○​ Primordialism: nations / ethnic identities are fixed, natural, and ancient. ○​ Ethnic grouping is natural & encoded in our genes. ○​ Discrimination, prejudice and ethnocentrism is inevit...

Race and Ethnicity II: Objectives: ​ Outline primordialism as per van den Berghe: ○​ Primordialism: nations / ethnic identities are fixed, natural, and ancient. ○​ Ethnic grouping is natural & encoded in our genes. ○​ Discrimination, prejudice and ethnocentrism is inevitable & natural. ○​ This will always continue b/c we can’t change our nature ○​ He agreed his argument isn’t the best b/c he didn't know the actual gene. ○​ DISAGREEMENTS: ​ People will hurt members of their own groups ​ People of diff groups will often work tgth in anti-racist campaigns ​ Explain frustration - aggression theory ○​ Psychological reason for why crimes occur. ○​ Frustration with your life = aggression. ○​ Ex: Hitler blames Jews, Marc Lepine blamed women ○​ This approach is flawed, b/c it ignores the social, economic factors, and that there are no races. ​ Outline the normative approach and Merton’s revisions: ○​ Prejudice and discrimination are normalised and passed down generations. It is socialised into children ○​ Structural Functionalism: prejudice is the result of group socialisation & norms. Those exposed to prejudice will discriminate later. ○​ Prejudice and discrimination can be explained by: ​ A person’s definition of situations: when it’s appropriate ​ Reference group norms: what is seen as accepted behaviour ○​ Merton’s (functionalist) Revision: why do some go against the group? ​ Argued that discrimination occurs BEFORE prejudice. Most people are so materialistic but have no means to get that success. They blame others and use prejudice to rationalise that. ​ Define the Vertical Mosaic: ○​ John Porter examined the class structure in Canada. ○​ Charter groups: colonised the country & set up rules for those entering Canada to follow. He believes these state policies created a vertical mosaic. This ethnic group is on top. ○​ Entrance groups: below charter group ​ Explicate split - labour market theory as per Edna Bonacich: ○​ Believed there were 3 groups in society ​ Business / capitalists ​ Highly paid (white) labour ​ Lower paid (non-white) labour ○​ The business class benefits from working class fighting. They perpetuate this conflict via discriminatory employment pracitices. __________________________ ➔​ Reena Virk: In 1997, a troubled teen from a strict Indo Canadian family was huge, and attacked by teens in Victoria BC. Many believe her visible minority status played a role in her death ➔​ Race and Eugenics: Well - born ◆​ Nazi Germany ◆​ 1920 and 1930s in Canada: doctors were concerned about the impacts of immigrants on the Canadian population, as they suspected they had physical & mental defects. ◆​ In Alberta & BC: sterilisation targeted visible minorities BUT this needed parental consent. ◆​ In 1937, consent provision was removed. This act was later removed in 1971 but the fear of being flooded by genetic defects continued. ➔​ Rushton & Rare Science, a University of Western Ontario psychologist ◆​ Outlined 3 races: Negroids, Caucasoids & Mongoloids. ◆​ Mongoloids: lower crime, less aggressive & more intelligent ◆​ Negroids: have a biological disposition to crime & are less intelligent. ◆​ PROBLEM: ​ He uses the concept of race & treats it as unproblematic. ​ He used a methodological approach; doesn’t account for differences in the ways that crime is measured in various nations. Why do Racial Crimes Occur? 1.​ Biological: Van Den Berghe // Primordialism 2.​ Psychological: a.​ Frustration Aggression Theory b.​ Authoritarian Personalities Theory: i.​ Some people biologically are more aggressive. 3.​ Normative explanation: Structural Functional Approach ➔​ John Porter in his text “The Vertical Mosaic”: Merton’s revisions were given more attention here. ➔​ Merton was a functionalist, but his work was powerful for conflict theorists like: ➔​ Satzewich: believed the struggle to accumulate wealth in capitalism is to blame or prejudice & discrimination. Immigrants are blamed for the poor economic situation experienced by members of the proletariat. The results are: ◆​ Chinese head tax ◆​ Exclusionary rules (Continuous Voyage Clause) ◆​ Systemic discrimination: visible minority wages ______________________________________________________________________ Sex and Gender I: Objectives: ​ Define sex and gender: ○​ Sex: biological traits of men and women. Includes chromosomes, gonads, hormones & sex organs. ○​ Gender: social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females. ○​ Deviation: transgendered, transsexual ​ compulsory heresexuality: straightness is the assumed and enforced norm in society. ​ Define and explain the significance of the sexual continuum: ○​ Sexual Continuum: Alphard Kinsey: ​ The living world is a CONTINUUM, there is no distinct categories ​ 0: completely heterosexual + 6: completely homosexual ​ most are in the middle ➔​ Caster Semenya: An intersex runner who ‘failed’ gender testing. She was told she had to take medication to lower her testosterone levels if she wanted to compete in the future. ➔​ Alphard Kinsey found: ◆​ Men do more pre/extramarital sex, and sex w/ prostitutes. ◆​ Males have more homosexual experiences (orgasm), as well are more bisexual and exclusively homosexual. ◆​ He was very controversial because of homophobia. ➔​ The Fruit Machine in Canada: test by RCMP; gay purge b/c homosexuals are irrational & a security threat. ➔​ David Reimer: ◆​ His penis was burnt off during circumcision in the 1960s. He underwent sexual reassignment b/c Dr. Money said sex and gender were malleable. He became a female with a vagina. However, it was not successful. He was very masculine and he transitioned to male at 15. ◆​ Is there something natural and biological that gender is biologically rooted? The parents choose for him. ◆​ As research confirms (Kruijver et al., 2000): gender has a neurological component in addition to the biological features of genitals and hormones: the brain helps to shape our gender. ______________________________________________________________________ Sex and Gender II: ➔​ Margaret Hamilton: being a software engineer was a ‘woman’s job’ b/c many believed it was just typing. ➔​ Many jobs became gendered after WWI: usually involved emotional labour. Gives a disadvantage = lower salaries + less job protection + fewer benefits than those enjoyed by workers outside the feminised occupational sphere. ◆​ The belief in 2 sexes has resulted in a belief in 2 genders = different realities for each gender. Essentialism ​ Definition: Belief that biological dispositions of gender determine a person’s nature. Men and women are fundamentally different and have different life options. Purpose: Justifies the status quo. ​ Examples: ○​ Brain Studies: "Pink vs. Blue Brain" ​ Debunked; shifted focus to sociobiology. ○​ Sociobiology: ​ Edward O. Wilson (entomologist): Studied ants; believed those adapting to environmental changes reproduce. ​ Men and women learn reproductive strategies to succeed. ​ Counter-research: Men and women prioritise the same traits—love and kindness. ​ Freudian View: ○​ Men and women resolve developmental challenges differently by conforming to heterosexual conduct. ○​ Oedipus Complex (men) vs. Electra Complex (women). Criticisms of Essentialism ​ Social Constructionists: most sociological thinking. Gender is shaped by human constructs, not biology. ○​ Influences on Gender: ​ Warfare, conquest, and plough agriculture: Male-dominated activities. ​ Capitalism (Marx): Biggest defeat for women; women’s household work is devalued. ​ Historical and Cultural Variability: ○​ Margaret Mead: Arapesh (New Guinea) showed reversed gender roles. ○​ Rape rates and societal changes show wide cultural variation, independent of genetics. ​ Declining Gender Differences: ○​ No differences in verbal abilities. ○​ Women outperform men in math; minor spatial ability differences. ​ Flaws in Essentialism: ○​ Sociobiologists have not identified genes causing gender differences. ○​ Generalises from averages, ignoring variations within gender groups. ○​ ○​ Exaggerate the unchangeability of gender differences: ​ Ex: More egalitarian societies reduce the age gap in female - male relationships. In conservative: male is older than female. ○​ Ignore the role of power & how inequalities perpetuate gender differences Sex Inequality ​ Economic Inequality: ○​ Double Work Day: women work for wage and for free at home. ○​ Sex Segregation: men work x job and women work x job. ○​ Sex Typing: stereotyping based on sex. Both men & women face sex typing. ○​ Glass - ceiling: women can see the highest paying job but can’t reach it. ○​ Non standard work: seasonal, temporary, no benefit, etc. These are less rewarding but also have less risk for women. ​ Social Inequality: ○​ Gender Stratification: ​ Men hold more power, prestige & wealth. ​ Power: ability to impose one’s will on other ​ Prestige: social ranking & respect. ​ Wealth: economic resources to pay for life’s necessities. ​ Women in Labour Force: Increased since 1961 ○​ Because there is an increase in demand for service sector workers ○​ Decrease in the number of children born ○​ Family finances ​ Income: women make less ○​ Gender differences in the characteristics that influence pay rates (education, experience, seniority) ○​ Women are involved in sex - segregated, non - standard work. ○​ Simple discrimination; even in same jobs, women make less ○​ General devaluation of women’s work. ​ Political Power: ○​ Ex: Only 1 Canadian female PM (Kim Campbell). She inherited the position after the former male leader (Brian Mulroney) stepped down. ​ The PC lost party status because of this. Feminisms: ​ Socialist Feminism: intersections of oppression b/w class & gender ○​ There are 2 sources of women’s oppression: capitalism & patriarchy ○​ Both must be altered / eliminated to free women. ○​ Capitalists benefit from women’s work; including raising children (free) ○​ Solution: ​ Laws of the state can be changed for + social change in society. ​ State intervened w/ social programs; raising the federal debt → current developments ​ Radical Feminism: ○​ Capitalism has little to do w/ female oppression. ○​ Women are oppressed b/c they’re women, & the state is a male state. Men, by nature, are aggressive & need to dominate women. The state is the enemy, not an ally. ​ Intersectionist: ○​ Oppression exists in many forms and it is cumulative. ○​ Gender is a social construct. ○​ Activism is based on outlining how gender is socially constructed & can eliminate unwanted equality. Social Images & Self: ​ Mass media is a place to push beauty norms; to pressure towards conformity. ​ George Herbert Mead's Social Self: sociologist ○​ I: subjective & initiated action) ○​ Me: objective, we perceive ourselves from others’ standpoint ○​ Generalised other: how we internalise societal norms “The Body Beautiful” ​Mathews (2000): ​ Girls suggested that they were not passive victims of beauty images. ​ Looking better means access to social groups & power. ​ Other girls (not boys) were the most important audience & their harshest critics. ​ She identified 4 groups in Lethbridge, AB: ○​ The elite ○​ The “wannabes” ○​ “Life in the middle” ○​ The fringe ______________________________________________________________________ Religion Objective: Define religion and humanist perspectives: ​ Religion: system of meaning for interpreting the world. A unified system of beliefs with a supernatural referent. Suggests “our existence has meaning.” ○​ When sociologists study religion, they do it scientifically. Develop theories & hypotheses & test them w/ rigorous scientific methods. ​ Humanist: human centred & often science based. Suggests “life has no meaning, we have to give it meaning.” Explain how theorists perceived religion: ​ Marx: ○​ Religion / God is a human creation ○​ Religion is the “opium of people” → a sedative to ↓ suffering ○​ Religion maintains an unequal exploitive society. ○​ It delays the inevitable transition to communism; ppl not seek revolution. ○​ Religion will eventually fade away; b/c capitalism will be overthrown. ​ Durkheim: a structural functionalist ○​ Religion is: ​ a social/human construction. ​ contributes to the collective conscience; creates norms & order ​ identifies this as sacred and profane ​ will continue to impact people & their behaviour; functional. ○​ Functions of religion: ​ Fosters cohesion (reaffirm a person’s commitment to social bonds) ​ Offer support during crises ​ Addresses ultimate question ​ Provides social service ​ Legitimizes political authority / BUT CAN: ​ Influences social change ○​ Collective Religiosity: how people behave collectively. ○​ We can interpret religions as: ​ Church - sect typology: splintering from other churches ​ OR Organizational Approach (Bibby likes this) ​ Professor Reginald Bibby in University of Lethbridge: ○​ Religion is withering in Alberta (2nd highest rate of no religion) and BC (highest rate of no religion). Regardless, people are still trying to figure life out, but few turn to traditional religion. ○​ Believes it’s derogatory to assume religion is withering away & churches are doomed. ○​ Organizational approach: assessing religion in terms of: ​ The sources of members ​ Most follow family & don’t search for new religions. ​ The goals of the group ​ Norms and roles used to establish purpose. ​ Sanctions to ensure conformity ​ Because u are relying on $$ and donations ​ Its overall “success.” ➔​ Solution: create a rights of passage, supply vs. demand (ex: funeral, wedding, baptisms done by church) ○​ Fragmented Gods: fate of religion depends on the ability of religious groups to meet demands. ​ Canadians are not leaving traditional organizations in favor of alternatives (ex: not following ‘electronic church’). ​ Instead, they are turning to “fragments” of traditional religions. → take a little of each religion and form unique spiritualism. ​ Weber: ○​ wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism ○​ Religion: ​ should be examined in terms of how it affects our behaviour ​ has been instrumental in shaping modern day capitalism. ​ creates power for some leaders. Operationalize religiosity: ​ How academics define something empirically. ​ Bibby argues to asses religion’s impact on people, we should ask: ○​ Belief (in God)? If yes: ​ Practice (prayer)? ​ Experience (see or speak directly to God) ​ Knowledge (of the bible)? Outline levels of personal religiosity in Canada: ​ Findings in Canada: ○​ 8/10 believe in God ○​ 7/10 believe in life after death ○​ 6/10 pray at least once a month ○​ Only ¼ consider religion to be ‘very important’ to them. ​ Richard Dawkins says people are pressured to say they believe in God. Identify and explain the Sources of Religion: By Bibby ​ Reflection: WRONG ○​ Are the religious the ones who think about life’s ultimate questions? (NO) ​ Socialization: necessary, but not sufficient ○​ Religious parents ​ Deprivation: WRONG ○​ Freud & Karl Marx: spiritual & economic deprivation = desire religion (NO) __________________________ ➔​ Richard Dawkins: atheist, argues that atheists are oppressed b/c they are forced to accept or endure ideas they disagree with. ◆​ Ex: praying at a meal ➔​ Professor Reginald Bibby in University of Lethbridge: ◆​ Religion is withering in Alberta (2nd highest rate of no religion) and BC (highest rate of no religion). Regardless, people are still trying to figure life out, but few turn to traditional religion. ➔​ Religion in Canada: ◆​ High degrees of religious tolerance and separation of church & state. ◆​ Catholics & Protestants have the most followers, but are now declining. ◆​ Islamic, Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist followers ↑ due to immigration ______________________________________________________________________ Crime and Deviance: Introduction to Crime and Deviance ​ Carnival Mirror Perspective (Reiman and Leighton, 2013): ​ Reiman and Leighton (2013) argue that crime is best understood as a “carnival mirror”. This is because the reality of crime differs greatly from how it is presented in the media. ​ Crime Misconceptions: ​ While the typical criminal is characterized as a young, poor, black, urbanized, male, the reality is that more pervasive and costly crime is perpetrated by those who engage in fraud, cheating on taxes, consumer deception, medical malpractice, and property crime. Crime is an illusion in our society. Key Objectives ​ Differentiation of Crime and Deviance: ​ Crime: Breaking laws. ​ Deviance: Violating social norms. ​ Understanding the Crime Funnel: ​ Describes the filtering process of crimes through detection, reporting, conviction, and incarceration. ​ Exploration of Theories and Concepts: ​ Includes strain theory, conflict theory, pluralism, postmodernism, learning theory, control theory, and labeling theory. ​ Moral Panics: ​ Framework for understanding societal reactions to perceived threats. Core Concepts ​ Norms, Deviance, and Crime: ​ Norms: Expected behaviors. ​ Deviance: Non-normative behaviors, which may or may not be crimes. ​ Crime: Violation of laws. ​ A given act may be a crime, but not necessarily deviant. For instance, many people exceed the speed limit somewhat. A given act may be deviant, but not a crime. For instance, people who tattoo their entire bodies may be deemed deviant, but not criminal. ​ Consensus vs. Conflict Crimes (Hagan): ​ Consensus crimes: Universally deemed harmful (mala in se). ​ Conflict crimes: Debated in harmfulness, culturally or socially specific (mala prohibita). ​ Social Deviations and Diversions: ​ Deviations: Legal but stigmatized behaviors (e.g., mental illness, being an ex-convict). ​ Diversions: Unconventional appearances (e.g., body piercings). ​ Formal and Informal Controls: ​ Formal Control: State or institutional control (e.g., law enforcement). ​ Informal Control: Peer, familial, or societal influence (e.g., teasing or parental discipline). ​ Internalized self-control: Most effective. Crime Statistics and Crime Funnel ​ Crime Statistics: ​ Crime is a dark figure. We don't actually know how much is being committed. ​ 1.8 million crimes reported annually (2013 data). ​ Breakdown: 48% property crimes, 20% violent crimes, remainder "other" (e.g., bail violations). ​ Crime Funnel: ​ Process (in order, top to bottom, process of elimination): ​ All crimes (detected/undetected). ​ Detected crimes (reported/unreported). ​ Reported crimes (founded/unfounded). ​ Crimes taken to court. ​ Convictions leading to incarceration. ​ So first we look at all crime. Detected crime moves forward. It's either reported or not reported. The reported crime moves forward, and then its either founded or unfounded (substantial evidence or not). Then that founded crime is taken to court, and sometimes you get a conviction but sometimes you get it acquitted. From those convicted come incarcerations. ​ ​ Police independently discover only 10% of crimes. Moral Crusaders and Moral Panics ​ Moral Crusaders (Howard Becker): ​ Becker argued that there are “moral crusaders” in society that try to change the behavior of others. That is, they believe that serious evil exists that must be eliminated. At times, this results in moral panics. ​ Characteristics of Moral Panics: ​ When a social issue becomes so significant to people that they start buying into and accepting bizarre information, a moral panic begins. There are many necessary characteristics to this. ​ Concern ​ Awareness that the group in question may be harmful. ​ Hostility ​ “They (the opposition/subject to the panic)” become folk devils. ​ Consensus ​ A large number of people become concerned about the group. ​ Disproportionality ​ Exaggerated fear disproportionate to the actual impact and facts. ​ Volatility ​ Arise and fade quickly. ​ If you lose just one of these, the argument that there is a moral panic is null. Explanations of Law and Crime in Society ​ Pluralism: ​ Pluralists argue that laws reflect what society deems important. Everyone has a say in the construction of laws. ​ Conflict Theory: ​ Conflict theorists argue that the bourgeoisie largely constructs the laws. The lower classes are criminalized. ​ Postmodernism: ​ Postmodernists maintain that society socially constructs crime. Those who generate and disseminate crime news control the law. Theories of Deviance ​ Strain Theory: ​ Strain theory grew out of functionalism. ​ It suggests that people behave deviantly when they are strained. ​ Strain theorists such as Robert Merton claimed that crime and deviance are the result of “rising expectations and falling realizations”. ​ Merton's Typology: ​ Mertons classification of different deviant actors. ​ On the left is the acceptance or not of culturally induced goals (the American dream, for example), and on the right is whether whether a person is actually able to/wants to achieve that goal. ​ Conformity: + + ​ Accepts goals and believes they have the means. ​ The classic American dream pursuer. ​ Innovation: + - ​ Someone buys into the "dream", but they don't think they can achieve it, so they find another way to get there. ​ A lot of criminals like drug dealers fall here. ​ Ritualism: - + ​ They don't have the goals or the aspiration to get to a point, but they have the means to. ​ Like a billionaire child who knows they'll be inheriting a lot of money. ​ Retreatism: - - ​ Rejects both. They reject the classic goals and they don't believe they can achieve said goals. ​ A lot of these people are the ones who go off the grid, and a lot of these people have psychological disorders. ​ Rebellion: +/- +/- ​ Attempts to create new goals and means. They don't accept the culturally induced goal of the American dream and seek to change it. They also don't buy into the average way of achieving things, and want to change it. ​ You see a lot of communists here. ​ Learning Theory: ​ People simply learn crime and deviance just like any other kind of behavior. ​ Deviance is learned behavior through interaction with others (differential association). ​ People learn how to commit crimes and attitudes to accomplish it (i.e. people learn “techniques of neutralization”). ​ Techniques of neutralization are techniques to neutralize feels of guilt, ethics, and morality, in order to commit crimes. ​ Control Theories: ​ Deviance occurs because it is enjoyable. ​ Why do people conform to societal standards rather than give into pleasure? Conformity stems from self-control (or social-control) taught at a young age (around 8/10) by authority figures like parents, teachers, etc. ​ Gender differences: Girls are more controlled than boys. This has implications later in life. Sometimes it creates rebels in women, but sometimes it perpetuates crime rates in men. ​ Labeling Theory: ​ Deviance results from societal labels, especially being labeled as such. Most peoples labels are internalized and reflected. ​ Labelling has a measure of power over people that may lead to further deviance. ​ Labels can perpetuate deviance due to societal expectations. Conclusions ​ Crime Trends: ​ Crime rates have decreased since 1991 but remain higher compared to the 1960s. Very similar to America. ​ Regional variance: Higher crime rates in Western Canada than Eastern Canada. ​ Comparative incarceration rates: Canada ranks lower than the U.S. and Russia but higher than Western Europe, India, and Japan. ​ Correlates of Crime: ​ Age, gender, socioeconomic class, and visible minority status strongly influence crime propensity. ​ Sociological analysis is critical to understanding these correlations.

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Browser