SOCI 1001 Fall 2024 Midterm Study Guide PDF

MIDTERM REVIEW Format of Exam: a) 10 multiple-choice (4 pts each); b) choose 3 out of 5 short-answer (10 pts each); c) 1 synthetic essay (30 pts). Remember to read all the directions on the exam and answer as fully as possible. Full answers for short-answer questions will entail defining concepts o...

MIDTERM REVIEW Format of Exam: a) 10 multiple-choice (4 pts each); b) choose 3 out of 5 short-answer (10 pts each); c) 1 synthetic essay (30 pts). Remember to read all the directions on the exam and answer as fully as possible. Full answers for short-answer questions will entail defining concepts or explaining theories in your own words and sharing examples of how they work in real life. Full answers for the essay will include explaining a key theory and unpacking how it works in several different aspects of social life covered across multiple units. Topics that will be covered 1. The sociological imagination and how it changes how we view the world. The sociological imagination is the relationship between an individual and the society they live in. This can shape how we view the world because they may correlate to one another. If an individual is troubled, it may be a reflection on society or it could help us understand the individual themselves. 2. The social construction of reality and how it relate to other concepts. The social construction of reality is surrounded by the idea of critical realism—reality exists independently from our awareness or understanding, but our knowledge of it is limited and influenced by our interpretations. Reality consists of the actual thing (a table, chair, person) and our understanding of that thing. Critical realism can bridge the gap between the objective (what is real) and the subjective (perception). We can never know the full truth, and our knowledge may be incorrect or incomplete. 3. Culture, social norms, and institutions Because humans aren’t instinctual, culture teaches us the social norms, values, behaviors and influences the individual. Institutions (schools, workplace) fill in the gap where we are expected to follow their own set of social norms. And the social norms are described as rules that guide behavior that individuals are expected to follow; these are through folkway, more, custom, and law. 4. Social facts and social control 5. The relationship between social structure and agency Human agency is the individual’s ability to act freely on their own accord but their behavior is limited by social structure which has norms, rules, and expectations that are expected to be obeyed, which limits the individual. 6. Impression management, stigma, and spoiled identity Impression management is how individuals attempt to influence how they are perceived by others. Stigma is a negative perception that people in a society have about another person’s attributes. Goffman described the three kinds of stigma being – body, character, and tribe. Spoiled identity refers to the negative impact that can happen to an individual’s self-image due to societal stigma. 7. Sociological vs psychological vs biological approaches to understanding deviance. 8. Functional argument for deviance and punishment The functional argument is that deviance can establish social norms, moral boundaries, and promote solidarity. 9. Sociological vs psychological accounts of the socialization process 10. Modernization and the major changes it brings. Modernization brings technological and economic advancements to society. 11. Pros and cons of instrumental rationality vs substantive rationality 12. Late Modernity vs Postmodernity Late modernity is about the cultural and structural pluralism with a more diverse society; it is characterized by upward mobility in terms of technological advancement, but there is still uncertainty. Postmodernity challenges the idea of only having one truth and shifts away from modernity, focusing on more diversity and subjectivity when it comes the truth. 13. The effects of deinstitutionalization and subjectivization 14. Marx and the historical materialist perspective on politics Marx focused on class dominance and his idea of materialism is about whoever has the most material are the drivers of society. Those from higher classes can have more power and control when it comes to politics because they have more material. The people with more material control the ideas. 15. Durkheim and the idealist perspective on politics Durkheim was focused on solidarity and wanted a just and fair system in society. 16. The place of the nuclear family in the history of family arrangements 17. The historical role of romance and marriage in premodern and modern societies 18. The reason for divorce in modern society 19. Patterns of social inequality and the family involving race and social class 20. Changing conceptions of children and childhood over history Readings: Preliminary things: Finn, Daniel “What is Critical Realism?” o Critical realism argues that while reality exists independently, our knowledge of it is limited and influenced by our own interpretations. o It encourages us to acknowledge that what we know can be incorrect or incomplete but urges us to strive for a more accurate understanding. o It bridges the gap between the objective (what is real) and the subjective (what we perceive) o Reality is real and exists, but we can never fully understand it. o Our knowledge is partial, but we should still aim to get as close to the truth as possible. Mills, C. Wright “The Promise” o “Sociological imagination”: helps individuals connect their personal experiences with broader societal structures. o Personal troubles are often linked to larger social issues, and understanding these connections can help people see beyond their own lives and understand societal forces at work. o Our personal problems are often tied to bigger societal issues. o To really understand the world we need to think beyond our personal experiences and see how larger social forces shape them. Social construction of culture & society: Berger “Religion and World-Construction” o Religion plays a crucial role in shaping how people see and understand the world. o Religion helps create a stable and meaningful reality by giving people a shared worldview, which becomes a basis for how long they live their lives and interact with others. o Religion helps people make sense of the world by offering shared beliefs and values that guide their actions and understanding of reality. Zerubavel “The Social Lens” o We view the world through a “social lens”: meaning that our understanding of reality is shaped by the society we live in ▪ We don’t see things purely as they are; our perception is filtered through cultural, social, and historical contexts. o We don’t see the world objectively. o We understand it through the perspective of our culture and society, which shapes what we notice and how we interpret things. Socialization & social interaction: William Little “Socialization”  o The importance of socialization is shaping individuals and it is influenced by various factors, including family, culture, and social institutions. ▪ He emphasizes that socialization is essential for integrating individuals into society. Dyer, Gwynne “Anybody’s Son Will Do” o Explores the experiences of young men in the military and how socialization within that context transforms their identities. ▪ The process involves adopting a new set of norms and behaviors to fit into military culture, illustrating the powerful impact of secondary socialization. Granfeld, Robert “Making it by Faking it” o Discusses how individuals can sometimes create a façade to navigate social environments. ▪ “Faking it” can be a strategy to conform to societal expectations or to overcome stigma, highlighting the complex interplay between identity and social acceptance. Deviance & social control: William Little “Deviance, Crime, and Social Control o Emphasizes that deviance is determined by societal norms rather than being an intrinsic quality of an individual. o He explores the processes through which society labels behavior and how those labels can influence individual identity and actions, reinforcing the concept of labeling theory. Rosenhan, David L. “On Being Sane in Insane Places” o Rosenhan examines the validity of psychiatric diagnoses by sending healthy individuals to psychiatric hospitals, where they feigned auditory hallucinations. o Once admitted, they behaved normally, yet were all diagnosed with psychiatric disorders. o This study highlights the impact of labeling and stigma in mental health, showing how societal reactions can distort perceptions of normality and sanity. Meyer, Philip “If Hitler Asked You to Electrocute a Stranger, Would You, Probably” o Meyer’s work discusses the ethical implications of authority and obedience, exploring how individuals may comply with directives that lead to harmful actions, as evidenced by the Milgram experiment. o This research links to social control and the societal pressures that can lead individuals to act against their moral judgements, raising questions about personal responsibility in the context of social norms. Social structures in late modernity:  Finn, Daniel “Social Structures” o Social structures influence individual behavior and societal norms. o He highlights the interplay between ascribed and achieved statutes in shaping social interactions and the importance of understanding these dynamics to grasp how deviance is constructed and regulated in society. Chen, Josh “Why Does Catholic Teaching Have a Hard Time Explaining How Racial Injustice is Perpetuated by Non-Racists?” o Explores the complexities of racial injustice, emphasizing that even individuals who do not identify as racists can contribute to systemic inequalities. o This aligns with the idea of social structures, as ingrained norms and behaviors within institutions can perpetuate injustice despite individual beliefs. Britannica | The Nature of Modern Society o Provides as overview of the transformations that have occurred in modern society, including the impact of industrialization, rationalization, and the emergence of bureaucratic systems. o Also discusses the social implications of these changes, particularly how they affect individual identity and agency. Politics: Mills, C. Wright “The Power Elite” o Discusses how a small group of elites control much of society’s wealth and power, making major decisions that impact everyone. Domhoff, G. William “Who Rules America” o Expands on how economic elites hold power and influence in American politics and society. Hunter, James “The Anatomy of Cultural Conflict” o Explores the culture wars in society, where groups fight over values, morals, and social direction. Family: Cherlin, Andrew “Degrees of Change” o Talks about how families have changed over time, particularly with the rise of cohabitation (living together without being married) and how societal norms shift regarding marriage and family. Sassler & Miller “Cohabitation Nation” (ch. 6) o Explores cohabitation and how it differs from traditional marriage, including its effects on relationships and social class. Hays, Sharon “Flat Broke with Children” o Focuses on the struggles of single mothers and the impact of poverty, examining how difficult it is for them to provide for their families. Summary of each section: Preliminary things: Reality vs. knowledge o Reality exists independently of our awareness or understanding. o It is much more complex than our knowledge of it. There are two types of knowledge: o The actual thing: real objects, like a table or a person, exist on their own. o Our understanding of the thing: this is how we perceive or think about those real objects, which may not fully represent the truth. o We can never know the complete truth, and our understanding can be flawed or mistaken. Social construction of culture & society: There two foundational facts: o Humans are social creatures: humans don’t live in isolation; they depend on interaction with others for survival and development. ▪ We form communities and societies to connect with each other. o Human behavior is patterned: our actions aren’t random. ▪ Human behavior follows regular and predictable patterns. ▪ This helps maintain order in society because we generally know what to expect from each other. Society as a tree metaphor: o Think of individuals as trees o Although we are unique and independent, we are rooted in the “soil” of society. o Just as a tree’s growth depends on its environment, our behavior, values, and beliefs are shaped by the society in which we live. Institutions and norms: o Social institutions like schools, families, or workplaces each have their own set of norms. o We adjust our behavior depending on where we are. ▪ Ex: you may act more formal in school compared to how you act with friends. Culture o Humans lack instincts: unlike animals, humans are not born with fixed instincts that dictate their behavior; instead, we rely on culture and social institutions to guide us.  o Institutions fill the gap: institutions (education, family, religion) teach us the behaviors, values, and norms that are not hardwired in us; these are acquired through learning and can be adapted over time. ▪ They come from outside (external), we internalize them so deeply that they feel like part of who we are. Social construction o Different cultures have different norms: each culture defines what is right, wrong, normal, or abnormal in its own way. ▪ What may seem acceptable in one culture could be unacceptable in another. ▪ Culture shapes how people view the world and each other. Culture and normative patterns o Culture and meaning: culture provides patterns of behavior, thought, and social interaction that help us navigate the world and understand what is expected of us. ▪ It tells us what is appropriate, what is good, and what we should expect from others. o Social norms: these are rules that guide behavior in society; most are unwritten but strongly followed. ▪ Folkways: informal norms that guide everyday behavior (e.g., covering your mouth when you cough) ▪ Mores: stronger norms tied to morality (e.g., not using racial slurs) ▪ Customs: accepted practices that have become culturally important (e.g., praying before meals) ▪ Laws: formal, written rules that society enforces through legal means. Social control o Physical violence: the use or threat of force is the most basic form of social control; while it exists, it is not the most effective way to maintain order, and it is typically reserved for institutions like police or military. o Economic coercion: this includes sanctions or economic measures to influence behavior, such as strikes or boycotts. o Informal social control: this involves subtle, non-violent pressures like peer pressure, gossip, or public shaming, which can be very powerful in shaping behavior. o Internal social control: the most common form of control, where individuals police themselves; over time, we internalize the norms and rules of society so deeply that we regular our own behavior without needing external enforcement. Socialization & social interaction:  Socialization: the process through which individuals internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of their culture, ultimately shaping their identity and personality. o This process transforms external cultural influences into internal understandings, making aspects of culture second nature to individuals. o Ex: the way different societies view certain foods—what is considered a delicacy—illustrates how physiological responses can be culturally derived. Sigmund Freud: posited that society plays a crucial role in controlling biological drives. o Emphasized the importance of operant conditioning, where behavior is shaped through rewards and punishments. o An important aspect of socialization involves the influence of a significant other—a person close to us during our formative years whom we imitate and from whom we adopt attitudes and behaviors. Socialization can be categorized into primary and secondary socialization: o Primary socialization occurs within the family and is fundamental in shaping how individuals perceive the world. o Secondary socialization takes places in broader societal contexts, such as schools, peer groups, and workplaces, where individuals learn to navigate different environments. Language is a crucial element of socialization, acting as a vehicle through which cultural norms and values are communicated and reinforced. G.H. Mead introduced the concept of the social self, suggesting that everyone has a dual self: o The “me” → shaped by society and encompasses our social roles and perspectives. o The “I” → represents our natural self and personal impulses. William James proposed that individuals possess multiple selves based on different contexts. Charles Cooley, known for the “looking-glass self”, describes how people form their self- concept based on how they perceive others view them. Erving Goffman and the metaphor of theater o Used to describe social interactions, proposing that the social world functions like a stage. o Impression management: where individuals consciously or unconsciously attempt to influence how they are perceived by others. o Frontstage: the public persona o Backstage: private self-behavior o Stigma: refers to attributes that may be perceived negatively by society, which is classified into three types: 1. Body stigma: e.g., weight, medical conditions 2. Character stigma: e.g., addiction, personality flaws  3. Tribe stigma: e.g., race religion: stigmas can significantly impact identity and self-perception, as they are often relative to social context. Ex: societal views on weight can differ based on gender, illustrating how stigma normalcy are not absolute but rather contextual. Deviance & social control: Larger social patterns: o When analyzing issues like school shootings, it’s crucial to look at broader societal trends—the prevalence, especially among white male millennials in America, raises questions about the cultural, social, and psychological factors at play. o This phenomenon is less common in other countries, prompting investigation into American societal norms, values, and structures that may contribute to this behavior. Biological bases of criminal behavior: o Cesar Lombroso: known as the father of modern criminology. ▪ Suggests that criminals are “atavists” or evolutionary throwbacks. ▪ Argues that certain biological traits indicate a predisposition to criminality, implying that individuals are born with a genetic tendency towards deviant behavior. o William Sheldon: categorized individuals into three body types: ▪ Endomorph: rounded and soft → often linked to extroverted personalities ▪ Ectomorph: thin and introverted → often characterized by shyness ▪ Mesomorph: muscular and athletic, typically associated with delinquency and aggressive behavior; this classification implies a connection between body type and predisposition to criminal behavior. o Sigmund Freud: psychoanalytic theory posits that all humans possess natural drives that are often repressed by societal norms. ▪ According to Freud, when these drives are not adequately controlled, they can lead to deviant behavior—this reflects the tension between individual desires and societal expectations. Social learning theory: this theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through observation and reinforcement. o Individuals weigh the potential benefits and consequences of their actions; if the perceived rewards of criminal activity outweigh the risks (like selling drugs), they may engage in such behaviors. Social construction of deviance: o Deviance is not inherently tied to specific individuals or actions; rather, it is defined by society’s reactions to those behaviors. ▪ The societal response is crucial in determining what is considered deviant.  o The line = the law ▪ Laws represent the boundaries of acceptable behavior. ▪ Crossing these boundaries results in societal judgement, classifying the action as deviant. ▪ Metaphor of deviance = weeds → they are out of place in a garden and society seeks to maintain order by controlling deviant behavior o Emile Durkheim: “we do not condemn it because it is a crime, but it is a crime because we condemn it” = highlights the relational aspect of deviance’ society’s moral judgements create the concept of crime. Labeling theory: deviance is ascribed to individuals by society; it emphasizes that deviance is not an inherent trait, but a label applied based on social reactions. o Primary deviance: minor violations that do not significantly impact the individual’s self-concept, such as receiving a speeding ticket. o Secondary deviance: occurs when societal labels lead to a change in self- perception and behavior, often resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy—ex: a student who is labeled as a “troublemaker” and subsequently adopts that identity, potentially leading to further deviant behavior (depicted in the film Easy A) Social structures in late modernity: Functional theory of deviance: o Suggests that deviance, or behaviors that go against societal norms, serves essential functions in society. o Instead of viewing deviance as purely negative, this perspective emphasizes that it plays a crucial role in maintain social order and reinforcing community values. Social control is never absolute. o Social control refers to the mechanism’s societies use to regulate individual behavior, ensuring conformity to norms; however, these controls are not foolproof. o Deviance can occur and different social factors can weaken the influence of social control, allowing individuals to act outside societal expectations. Deviance can serve a social purpose—it is not merely disruptive; it can also promote social cohesion and clarify societal norms. Functions include: o Reaffirming social norms: when deviant acts are publicly condemned, they reinforce what is considered acceptable behavior in society. o Clarifying moral boundaries: deviance helps define the limits of acceptable behavior, making it clear what society collectively agrees upon as right or wrong. o Reinforcing identity and authority: the dominant group’s identity can be strengthened through the labeling of deviant behaviors, thus maintaining their status and authority.  o Promoting solidarity: in some cases, deviance can unite individuals against a perceived “other”—historical examples include lynching and McCarthyism, where society rallied against those labeled as deviants or threats. Consequences of being labeled deviant, some examples: o Hysteria around women: women have often been labeled as hysterical, leading to social stigma and discrimination against them. o Criminal labeling: individuals labeled as criminals may lose their voting rights, face job discrimination, or be viewed negatively in society. Jesus and the social construction of deviance o Historical narratives around figures like Jesus illustrate how deviance can be socially constructed. o Jesus was labeled a traitor and an enemy of the state, reflecting how society defines and reacts to those who challenge established norms or authority. o This shows that deviance can also intersect with moral and religious beliefs, further complicating its social meaning. Social structure refers to the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that together compose society. o Includes ascribed statuses (inherent traits – race, age, and gender) and achieved statuses (attributes gained through personal effort, such as profession or marital status). An individual’s social position affects their behavior through various factors including: o Incentives: rewards or punishments that influence behavior. o Constraints: limitations imposed by social norms or structures. o Opportunities: resources available to individuals based on their social position. Human agency: while individuals have the ability to make choices (human agency), their options are shaped by their social context; this means that the environment and social structures play a crucial role in determining actions and behaviors. Generational influence: different generations experience distinct social changes that shape their perspectives and behaviors. Max Weber: o Modernization: a process driven by technological and economic advancements, leading to significant social changes. o Industrialization: this was seen as a primary force behind economic growth o Rationalization: discussed a shift in mindset where decisions became focused on efficiency and goal-oriented actions, leading to the creation of bureaucratic systems. ▪ “Iron cage” → individuals may feel trapped within these systems due to the emphasis on efficiency and rationality, often at the expense of personal values.  Late modernity: this period is characterized by cultural and structural pluralism, recognizing the existence of diverse cultures and social structures within society. Post modernity: in this era, there is a shift away from absolute truths; key characteristics include: o Ideological movement: challenging the notion of a single, universal truth. o Disenchantment: a sense of disillusionment with established norms and beliefs. o Deinstitutionalization: the breakdown of traditional institutions leading to more choices for individuals, but also less guidance on decision-making. Politics: Durkheim: believed that politics was about keeping society just and fair – making sure everything is in order. o Social solidarity – looked at how people in society stick together. o Mechanical solidarity: in older, simpler societies, people shared similar jobs and lives; they all believed and did similar things. o Organic solidarity: in modern societies, people do different jobs, but they depend on each other. ▪ Ex: one person might be a doctor, and another might be a teacher, but both need each other to keep society running smoothly. o Culture plays a big role in politics—culture decides what’s right or wrong, what stories we tell about ourselves, and how we think society should be Marx and class dominance (Domhoff): o Marx believed that society is divided by classes—the rich and the poor—and they are always in conflict. o The rich (who have power) want to keep that power, while the poor (who don’t have power) want to change things. o He though material things (money, property, and resources) were the most important drivers of society. o Those who control the money also control the ideas and power in society. o For Marx, the real fight is about who control resources, not just about ideas or values. Weber and oligarchy (Mills): o Weber saw that modern society is often controlled by a few powerful people at the top – oligarchy. o These elites make important decisions that affect everyone else. o Politics and business were so connected that money becomes a big part of how politicians are chosen; this means rich people or businesses have a lot of influence over political decisions. o In this system, ordinary people have less say, while the elite interlock—or work together—to keep control.  Hunter’s culture war o Politics is often a culture war—a battle between different cultural group fighting for control. o These groups may have different values, beliefs, and ways of life, and they fight to make their vision of society the dominant one. Identity politics: people vote or support policies based on a part of their identity, like race, gender, or where they live. o this can be divisive because people might take criticism of their politics as a person attack on their identity; it can create tension when people feel like focusing on one group means ignoring or harming others. Alex Honneth: believed that politics is about struggle—the fight for recognition and justice. o He argued that it’s not about fair distribution of resources (like money), but also about being recognized and respected in society. o Ex: if the government makes promises but doesn’t follow through, it causes legitimacy crisis—people start to lose trust in their leaders; different groups might disagree on what’s fair or legitimate. Family: Nuclear family: what we typically think of as a family: two parents and their kids; but this wasn’t always the main type of family in history—there were other forms like extended families where grandparents, aunts, and uncles lived together. Over time, how people see marriage and divorce has changed: o Society’s views about work, family life, and children have evolved. o Endogamous marriage: people mostly married within their community or for reasons like money and status. o people today value love and romance in marriage much more, but this also means that if their needs aren’t met, they’re more likely to get divorced. o Deinstitutionalization refers to how the rules around marriage have weakened; divorce is now more accepted because people are more demanding about what they want from marriage. Causes for divorce: o People get divorced for many reasons, but a big factor is how much romance is valued in relationships; if romantic needs aren’t met, they feel disenchanted and often choose to separate – divorce also became more common as society became more accepting of it. Marriage and legal benefits o Marriage comes with lots of legal and financial benefits. ▪ You can make medical decisions for your spouse. ▪ You inherit from them when they pass away.  ▪ Married people often get better health benefits from employers. ▪ Children’s futures are often influenced by how much money their parents make. Marriage matters not just for love, but also for economic reasons—ex: it can provide financial security and opportunities for both partners and their children. Marriage is tied to social class. o Wealthier people often benefit more from marriage because they have more resources to share; in contrast, poorer people face more challenges, like difficulty maintaining stable relationships or raising children. Work and the family o In the past children were seen as valuable economic contributors because they worked on farms or in other jobs; but as society industrialized, we started seeing children more as students rather than workers. o Domestic labor (housework) wasn’t considered real “work” for a long time, but it’s still important for families to function. o With industrialization, families began splitting roles: men became workers outside the home, and women stayed home to care for the family, but even then, children still had responsibilities like working. Childhood is a more modern idea. o In the past, children were often treated like adults and had to work, join the military, or even participate in politics. o Adolescence, as a stage of life, also didn’t exist until more modern times. Gender and work: o Marriage premium for men → married men often benefit financially because they’re seen as more responsible; employers may promote married men because they believe they are more dedicated to their jobs. o Marriage penalty for women → women, often face challenges when they get married, especially if they have children; for example, being pregnant can be seen as a disadvantage in the workplace, and mothers often earn less than fathers. o Motherhood and fatherhood → fathers are expected to work for their families, while mothers are often expected to take care of the children; this expectation contributes to the wage gap, where women (especially mothers) earn less than men. Types of households: o Single mothers: households headed by single mothers tend to have lower incomes, making it harder for them to escape poverty. o Children in single-parent homes: the U.S. has a high number of children living with just one parent, which is linked to financial challenges. o Elderly living alone: there is also a high number of elderly people living alone, which can pose its own set of challenges.