Sociology Midterm Notes PDF

**Sociological** is the scientific study of society/ the group of social interaction, Sociological is an attentive way of understanding behaviors, To understand behavior and social context. What are **folkways**- Rules for routine or casual interaction. "Everyday behaviors."- Doing something withou...

**Sociological** is the scientific study of society/ the group of social interaction, Sociological is an attentive way of understanding behaviors, To understand behavior and social context. What are **folkways**- Rules for routine or casual interaction. "Everyday behaviors."- Doing something without even thinking about it, Ex:getting up in the monitoring and putting your clothes on. The **sociological perspective** stresses that people's social experiences---the groups to which they belong and their experiences within these groups---underlie their behavior. **social location,** the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are located in a society, things like age, class, race and ethnicity, gender. **Society**-a group of people who share a culture and a territory. **Sociological perspective** from Mills- History helps sociologists understand the broader societal context, while biography offers insights into individual experiences within that context. **The scientific method**---using objective, systematic observations to test theories---was being tried out in chemistry and physics. With traditional answers failing, the next step was to apply the scientific method to questions about social life. The result was the birth of sociology. **The origins of Sociology-** These were pressing questions, and Comte decided that the scientific method held the key to answering them. Just as the scientific method had revealed the law of gravity, so, too, it would uncover the laws that underlie society. Comte called this new science **sociology**---"the study of society" **Auguste Comte** (1798-- 1857), who is credited as the founder of sociology, began to analyze the bases of the social order. Although he stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, he did not apply it himself. ***Herbert Spencer** (1820--1903), sometimes called the second founder of sociology, coined the term "survival of the fittest." Spencer thought that helping the poor was wrong, that this merely helped the "less fit" survive.* *Comte vs Spence- Comte believed that we should use sociology to fix our current society, while Spencer believed that society will fix itself on its own.* ***Social Dawrism-*** Spencer called this principle the survival of the fittest. Although Spencer coined this phrase, it usually is credited to his contemporary, Charles Darwin. Where Spencer proposed that societies evolve over time as the fittest adapt to their environment, Darwin applied this idea to organisms. Because Darwin is better known, Spencer's idea is called social Darwinism. ***Karl Marx** (1818--1883) believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict, the exploitation of workers by those who own the means of production. Social change, in the form of the workers overthrowing the capitalists, was inevitable from Marx's perspective. Although Marx did not consider himself\ a sociologist, his ideas have influenced many sociologists, particularly conflict theorists.* *Society is made up of two social* *classes, he said, and they are natural enemies: the **bourgeoisie** (boo- shwa-ZEE) (the capitalists, who own the capital, land, factories, and* ***Karl Marx (1818--1883) (Class Conflict)*** believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict, the exploitation of workers by those who own the means of production. Social change, in the form of the workers overthrowing. the capitalists, was inevitable from Marx's perspective. Although Marx did not consider himself a sociologist, his ideas have influenced many sociologists, particularly conflict theorists. *machines) and the **proletariat** (the exploited workers). Eventually, the workers will unite and break their chains of bondage. The workers' revolution will be bloody, but it will usher in a classless society, one free of exploitation. People will work according to their abilities and receive goods and services according to their needs (Marx and Engels 1848/1967).* *Marxism is not the same as communism* *The French sociologist **Emile Durkheim** (1858--1917) contributed many important concepts to sociology. His comparison of the suicide rates of several countries revealed an underlying social factor: People are more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities are weak. Durkheim's identification of the key role of social integration\ social life remains central to sociology today.* *Durkheim identified **social integration,** the degree to which people are tied to their social group: He found that people who have weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide. This, he said, explains why Protestants, males, and the unmarried have higher suicide rates.* *Sociologists look at **patterns of behavior,** recurring characteristics or events.* ***Max Weber** (1864--1920) was another early sociologist who left a profound impression\ on sociology. He used cross- cultural and historical materials to trace the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people's orientations to life.* *How **Capitalism** was born- Roman Catholics were taught that because they were Church members they were on the road to heaven, but Protestants, those of the Calvinist tradition, were told that they wouldn't know if they were saved until Judgment Day. Uncomfortable with this, theCalvinists began to look for "a sign" that they were in God's will. They found this "sign" in financial success, which they took as a blessing that indicated that God was on their side. To bring about this "sign" and receive spiritual comfort, they began to live frugal lives, saving their money and investing it in order to make even more. This, said Weber, brought about the birth of capitalism.* ***Religion and the Origin of Capitalism.** Weber disagreed with Marx's claim that economics is the central force in social change. That role, he said, belongs to religion. Weber (1904/1958) theorized that the Roman Catholic belief system encouraged followers to hold on to traditional ways of life, while the Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change.* ***W**(illiam) **E**(dwarf) **B**(burghardt) **Du Bois** (1868--1963) spent his lifetime studying relations between African Americans and whites. Like many early North American sociologists, Du Bois combined the role of academic sociologist with that of social reformer. Du Bois analyzes changes that occurred in the social and economic conditions of African Americans during the thirty years following the Civil War.* ***Jane Addams** (1860--1935) a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Peace, worked on behalf of poor immigrants. With Ellen G. Starr, she founded Hull-House, a center to help immigrants in Chicago. She was also a leader in women's rights (women's suffrage), as well as the peace movement of World War I.* ***C. Wright Mills** (1916--1962) was a controversial figure\ in sociology because of his analysis of the role of the power elite in U.S. society.Today, his analysis is taken for granted by many sociologists and members of the public.* ***The Continuing Tension:\ Basic, Applied, and Public Sociology*** ***Basic Sociology.** As we have seen, two contradictory aims---analyzing\ society versus working toward its reform---have run through North American soci- ology since its founding. This tension is still with us. Some sociologists see their proper role as **basic sociology,** analyzing some aspect of society, with no goal other than gaining knowledge. Others reply, "Knowledge for what?" They argue that gaining knowledge through research is not enough, that sociologists need to use their expertise to help reform society, especially to help bring justice and better conditions to the poor and oppressed.* ***Applied Sociology.** As Figure 1.3 shows, one attempt to go beyond basic sociology is **applied sociology,** using sociology to solve problems. Applied sociology goes back to the roots of sociology, for as you will recall, sociologists founded the NAACP. Today's applied sociologists lack the broad vision that the early sociologists had of reforming society, but their application of sociology is wide-ranging. Some work* *for business firms to solve problems in the workplace, while others investigate social problems such as pornography, rape, pollution, or the spread of AIDS. Sociology is even being applied to find ways to disrupt terrorist groups (Sageman 2008). To see some of the variety of work that applied sociologists do, look at the Down-to-Earth Sociology box on the next page.* ***Public Sociology.** To get sociologists to apply sociology in a broader way, the American Sociological Association (ASA) is promoting a middle ground between research and reform called **public sociology.** By this term, the ASA refers to harnessing the sociological perspective for the benefit of the public. Of special interest to the ASA is getting politicians and policy makers to apply the sociological understanding of how society works as they develop social policy (American Sociological Association 2004). Public sociology would incorporate both items 3 and 4 of Figure 1.3* ***Social Reform Is Risky.** As some sociologists have found, often to their displeasure, promoting social reform is risky. This is especially the case if they work with oppressed people to demand social change. Always, what someone wants to "reform" is something* ***Applied sociologists**, in contrast, work in a wide variety of areas---from counseling children to studying how diseases are transmitted. To give you an idea of\ this variety, let's look over the shoulders of five applied sociologists.* *Basic sociology---research aimed at learning more about some behavior* *Facts never interpret themselves. To make sense out of life, we place our experiences (our "facts") into a framework of more-or-less related ideas. This gives us a way of inter- preting them. Sociologists do this, too, but they place their observations into a conceptual framework called a theory. A **theory** is a general statement about how some parts\ of the world fit together and how they work. It is an explanation of how two or more "facts" are related to one another.* *Sociologists use three major theories: symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory* *The central idea of **symbolic interactionism** is that symbols---things to which we attach meaning---are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another.* ***Symbols in Everyday Life.** Without symbols, our social life would be no more sophisticated than that of animals. For example, without symbols we would have no aunts or uncles, employers or teachers---or even brothers and sisters.* *George Mead- is one of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in sociology. He taught at the University of Chicago, where his lectures were popular. Although he wrote little, after his death students compiledhis lectures into an influential book, Mind, Self, and Society.* *As **divorce** became more common, its meaning changed. Rather than being a symbol of failure. When the family loses functions, it becomes more fragile, making an increase in divorce inevitable. The dominance of men over women was once considered natural and right. As women gained education and earnings, however, they first questioned and then rejected this assumption* ***Parents** used to have little responsibility for their children beyond providing food, clothing, shelter, and moral guidance. And they needed\ to do this for only a short time, because children began to contribute to the support of the family early in life.* *And we can't overlook the **love** symbol. As surprising as it may sound, to have love as the main reason for marrying weakens marriage.* *The central idea of **functional analysis** is that society is a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together.* ***Robert K. Merton-***(1910--2003), who spent most of his academic career at Columbia University, was a major proponent of functionalism, one of the main theoretical perspectives in sociology***.*** ***Conflict theory-*** provides a third perspective on social life. Unlike the functionalists, who view society as a harmonious whole with its parts working together, conflict theorists stress that society is composed of groups that are competing with one another for scarce resources. The surface might show cooperation, but scratch that surface and you will find a struggle for power. Marx- As he did so, he developed **conflict theory.** He concluded that the key to human history is *class conflict.* In each society, some small group controls the means of production and exploits those who are not in control. In industrialized societies, the struggle is between the *bourgeoisie,* the small group of capitalists who own the means to produce wealth, and the *proletariat,* the mass of workers who are exploited by the bourgeoisie. Many sociologists **extend conflict theory** beyond the relation- ship of capitalists and workers. They examine how opposing interests run through every layer of society---whether that be a small group, an organization, a community, or the entire society. For example, when police, teachers, and parents try to enforce conformi- ty, this creates resentment and resistance. Sociologists who use the **functionalist** perspective stress how industrialization and urbanization undermined the traditional functions of the family. Before industrialization, members of the family worked together as an economic unit, as in this photo of a farm family in Nebraska in the 1890s. As production moved away from the home, it took with it first the father and, more recently, the mother. One consequence is a major dysfunction, the weakening of family ties. **Functionalists** and conflict theorists focus on the **macro level**; that is, they examine large-scale patterns of society. In contrast, **symbolic interactionists** usually focus on the **micro level**, on social interaction---what people do when they are in one another's presence. +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Theoretic | **Usual | **Focus of | **Key | **Applying | | al | Level of | Analysis** | Terms** | the | | Perspective | Analysis** | | | Perspective | | ** | | | | to the U.S. | | | | | | Divorce | | | | | | Rate** | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Symbolic | Microsociol | Face-to-fac | Symbols | Industriali | | Interaction | ogical | e | Interaction | zation | | ism** | Examines | interaction | Meanings | and | | | small-scale | , | Definitions | urbaniza- | | | patterns of | how people | | tion | | | social | use symbols | | changed | | | interaction | to create | | marital | | | | social life | | roles and | | | | | | led to a | | | | | | redefinitio | | | | | | n | | | | | | of love, | | | | | | marriage, | | | | | | children, | | | | | | and | | | | | | divorce. | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Functiona | Macrosociol | Relationshi | Structure | As social | | l | ogical | ps | Functions | change | | Analysis** | Examines | among the | | erodes the | | | large-scale | parts of | (manifest | traditional | | (also | patterns of | society; | | functions | | called | society | how these | and latent) | of the | | functionali | | parts are | Dysfunction | family, | | sm | | functional | s | family ties | | and | | (have | Equilibrium | weaken, and | | structural | | beneficial | | the divorce | | functionali | | conse- | | rate | | sm) | | quences) or | | increases. | | | | dysfunction | | | | | | al | | | | | | (have | | | | | | negative | | | | | | conse- | | | | | | quences) | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Conflict | Macrosociol | The | Inequality | When men | | Theory** | ogical | struggle | Power | control | | | Examines | for scarce | Conflict | economic | | | large-scale | resources | Competition | life, the | | | patterns of | by groups | Exploitatio | divorce | | | society | in a | n | rate is low | | | | society; | | because | | | | how the | | women find | | | | elites use | | few alter- | | | | their power | | natives to | | | | to con- | | a bad | | | | trol the | | marriage. | | | | weaker | | The high | | | | groups | | divorce | | | | | | rate | | | | | | reflects a | | | | | | shift in | | | | | | the balance | | | | | | of power | | | | | | between men | | | | | | and women. | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **A Research Model Steps** 1.**Selecting a topic** 2.**Defining the problem** 3.**Reviewing the literature** 4.**Formulating a hypothesis** 5.**Choosing a research method** 6.**Collecting the data** 7.**Analyzing the results** 8.**Sharing the results** **sample,** individuals from among your target population. How you choose a sample is crucial, for your choice will affect the results of your research **Mean-**The term *average* seems clear enough. As you learned in grade school, to find the average you add a group of numbers\ and then divide the total by the number of cases that you added. **The Median**- To compute the second average, the *median*, first arrange the cases in order---either from the highest to the lowest or the lowest to the highest. That arrangement will produce the following distribution. **The Mode-** The third measure of average, the *mode,* is simply the cases that occur the most often. In this instance the mode is 57, which is way off the mark. **List of research methods** **1.SURVEYS**- Let's suppose that you want to know how many wives are abused each year. Some husbands also are abused, of course, but let's assume that you are going to focus on wives. An appropriate method for this purpose would be the **survey,** in which you would ask individuals a series of questions. Before you begin your research, however, you must deal with practical matters that face all researchers 2.**PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION**- The researcher *participates* in a research setting while *observing* what is happening in that setting. Obviously, this method does not mean that you would sit around and watch someone being abused. But if you wanted to learn how abuse has affected the victims' hopes and goals, their dating patterns, or their marriages, you could use participant observation. 3.**CASE STUDIES**- The researcher focuses on a single event, situation, or indi- vidual. The purpose is to understand the dynamics of relationships and power, or even the thinking that motivates people. 4.**EXPERIMENTS-**Because experiments are useful for determining cause and effect, let's suppose that you propose an experiment to a judge and she gives you access to men who have been arrested for spouse abuse. As in Figure 1.7, you would divide the men randomly into two groups. This helps to ensure that their individual characteristics (attitudes, number of arrests, severity of crimes, education, race--ethnicity, age, and so on) are distributed between the groups. You then would arrange for the men in the experimental group to receive some form of therapy. The men in the control group would not get therapy.Your independent variable, something that causes a change in another vari- able, would be therapy. Your dependent variable, the variable that might change, would be the men's behavior: whether they abuse women after they get out of jail. Unfortunately, your operational definition of the men's behavior will be sloppy: either reports from the wives or records indicating which men were rearrested for abuse. This is sloppy because some of the women will not report the abuse, and some of the men who abuse their wives will not be arrested. Yet it might be the best you can do. 5.**Unobtrusive Measures-** observing the behavior of people who are not aware that they are being studied. **Ethics** in social research are of vital concern to sociologists. As discussed in the text, sociologists may disagree on some of the issue's finer points, but none would approve of slipping LSD to unsuspecting subjects like this Marine. This was done to U.S. soldiers in the 1960s under the guise of legitimate testing---just "to see what would happen." **Values**---beliefs about what is good or desirable in life and the way the world ought to be---are another controversial issue in sociology. Max Weber said that sociol- ogy should be **value free.** By this, he meant that a sociologist's values should not affect social research. Instead, **objectivity,** value neutrality, should be the hallmark of social research. If values influence research, he said, sociological findings will be biased. Max Weber said that sociology should be **value free.** By this, he meant that a sociologist's values should not affect social research. **objectivity,** value neutrality, should be the hallmark of social research. If values influence research, he said, sociological findings will be biased. **replication,** repeating a study in order to compare the new results with the original findings. **What is the sociological perspective?** The **sociological perspective** stresses that people's social experiences---the groups to which they belong and their experiences within these groups---underlie their behavior. **When did sociology first appear as a separate discipline?\ **Sociology emerged in the mid-1800s in western Europe, dur- ing the onset of the Industrial Revolution. Industrialization changed all aspects of human existence---where people lived, the nature of their work, their relationships with each other, and how they viewed life. Early sociologists who focused on these social changes include Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Harriet Martineau **What is the relationship between sociology and social reform?** From its roots, a tension has run between doing **basic soci- ology** and using sociology to reform society. This tension has never been resolved. Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills took opposite positions. Parson's focus was on how the components of society are related to one another. Mills stressed that such a focus does nothing for social reform, which should be the goal of sociologists. This debate about the purpose and use of sociology continues today. **Applied sociology** is the use of sociology to solve problems, usually in specific settings, such as at work or in an organization. The goal of **public sociology** is to benefit the public through the application of sociological data and the sociological perspective **What was the position of women and minorities in early sociology?\ **Early sociology occurred during a time of deep sexism and racism, and both women and minorities faced dis- crimination. Few women received the education required to become sociologists, and those who did tended to focus on social reform. The debate about the proper role of sociology---social reform or objective social analysis---was won by male university professors who ignored the contributions of women as they wrote the history of sociology. A **theory** is a statement about how facts are related to one another. A theory provides a conceptual framework for interpreting facts **What major theoretical perspectives do sociologists use to interpret social life?** **Symbolic interactionists** examine how people use symbols (meanings) to develop and share their views of the world. Symbolic interactionists usually focus on the **micro level**--- on small-scale, face-to-face interaction. **Functional ana- lysts,** in contrast, focus on the **macro level**---on large-scale patterns of society. Functional theorists stress that a social system is made up of interrelated parts. When working properly, each part contributes to the stability of the whole, fulfilling a function that contributes to the system's equilib- rium. **Conflict theorists** also focus on large-scale patterns of society. They stress that society is composed of compet- ing groups that struggle for scarce resources. **How do sociologists gather data?** To gather data, sociologists use seven **research methods** (or *research designs*): **surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, documents, experi- ments, and unobtrusive measures.** Ethics and Values in Sociological Research **How important are ethics in sociological research?\ **Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists,\ who are committed to openness, honesty, truth, and protecting their subjects from harm. The Brajuha research on restaurant workers and the Humphreys research on "tearooms" illustrate ethical issues of concern to sociologists. **What value dilemmas do sociologists\ face?\ **The first dilemma is how to make certain that research\ is objective and not unintentionally distorted by the researchers' values. To overcome this possible source of bias, sociologists stress **replication.** The second dilemma is whether to do research solely to analyze human behavior or with the goal of reforming harmful social arrangements. **Have common sense?\ **Common sense is unreliable. Research often shows that commonsense ideas are limited or false **Macrosociology** is a branch of sociology that studies the broad-scale social systems and populations that impact individuals: **Microsociological** is a sociological perspective that studies the nature of small-scale, everyday human social interaction Marginalized- Social group that it occupied outside the centers of power. Ex:Minorities, and LGBT people.