SLPC1031 Notes - Research Methods & Development

Research Methods 1\) Naturalistic observation natural settings 2\) Case studies in-depth, using observation / interview 3\) Experiments experimental group VS control group 4\) Cross-sectional designs participants of different ages studied at one time 5\) Longitudinal designs participants i...

Research Methods 1\) Naturalistic observation natural settings 2\) Case studies in-depth, using observation / interview 3\) Experiments experimental group VS control group 4\) Cross-sectional designs participants of different ages studied at one time 5\) Longitudinal designs participants in one group studied several times (over time period) 6\) Sequential designs combines cross-sectional and longitudinal i.e. different age group being studied several times Theories 1\) Erikson Psychoanalytic theory age and crisis 2\) Pavlov Classical Conditioning unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response ê After learning, conditioned stimulus can elicits conditioned response 3\) Skinner Operant Conditioning change of behaviour Positive reinforcement: give something to encourage behaviour Negative reinforcement: remove something to encourage behaviour Punishment: discourage you to do 4\) Bandura social cognitive theory learn from model, perceived self-efficacy (you think you can do something) 5\) Piaget cognitive theory \- Scheme: develop concept \- Assimilation: use scheme to make sense of experiences \- Accommodation: change scheme to incorporate new information \- Equilibration: Balance assimilation and accommodation 6\) Vygotsky socio-cultural theory Zone of proximal development: 3 circles Inner circle: can work unassisted Middle circle: can work with assistance (scaffoldings) Outer circle: out of reach Bronfenbrenner bioecological theory relationship between people and environments 1 Biological system: genetic makeup, physiological e.g. height, eye colour 2 Microsystem: most immediate relationship interact directly with the child e.g. family, school, neighborhood 3 Mesosystem: relationship and interaction between different microsystems e.g. parents' participation in school activities can strengthen the connection between the school and home 4 Exosystem: indirect influence e.g. parents' workplace, policies carried by local government, media 5 Macrosystem culture, social class (access to resources, economic status), political system 6 Chronosystem: changes over time can be personal or at societal level e.g. historical events, technological advancements, social norms and values ê all these systems are interdependent Key terms - Nature VS Nurture environment or genetics influence development more - Continuity VS Discontinuity continuous aspect: people of all ages have peer relationships discontinuous aspect: characteristics of friendship itself vary by age The lifespan perspective - multi-contextual nature of development - plasticity and adaptability at all ages Critical period - specific periods of development e.g. cover the eyes for weeks blind Sensitive period - broader than critical period - span of months / years child sensitive to certain type of experience e.g. 6-12m formation of attachment **BIRTH** Genotype: genetic blueprint Phenotype: observable characteristics Polygenic inheritance many genes influence a trait e.g. height, personality Multifactorial inheritance affected by both genes and environment ê Two-way interplay between people and environment Trisomy 3 chromosomes Monosomy absence of one member of chromosome pair Down syndrome intellectual disability distinctive facial features physical abnormalities Embryo up to 8 weeks of gestation foundations of organ structure, basic framework is refined Fetus after 8 weeks of gestation until birth **Germinal stage** - conception, implantation **Embryonic stage** - 2-8 weeks after conception - neural tube develops (spine, brain) - form foundation of all body organs and systems - many organs and systems begin to function **Fetal stage** - end of week 8 until birth - refinement of all organ systems - neuronal proliferation - viable at week 24 (having chance of surviving), full-term at week 37 - recognizes mother voice at week 25 - can differentiate familiar and novel stimuli by 32-33 weeks - fetal yawning between 10-15 weeks **Prenatal sex differences** Male - more physically active - higher rate of miscarriage - more vulnerable to prenatal problems Female - more sensitive to external stimulation - more rapid skeletal development **Milestones of Pregnancy** 1^st^ trimester - From first day of last menstrual period to 12 weeks - missed period - breast enlargement - abdominal thickening - regular prenatal care - problems: miscarriage, bleeding 2^nd^ trimester - From 12 weeks after LMP to 24 weeks after LMP - increased appetite - fetal movements felt - monthly doctor visit, ultrasound - problems: gestational diabetes, increased blood pressure, premature labor 3^rd^ trimester - From 25 weeks after LMP to beginning of labor - breast discharge 分泌物 - weekly visit (begin in 32^nd^ weeks) - pelvic exam to check cervical dilation Women over 35 pregnant - low-lying placenta - premature birth Tobacco - lower birth weight - higher rates of learning problems, ADHD Alcohol - intellectual disability - perceptual difficulties - short, small heads **Stages of birth** 1\. Contractions, dilation of cervix 2\. Actual delivery of baby 3\. Delivery of placenta and umbilical cord Cesarean section (C-section) When... 1\. Fetal distress during labor (indicate the fetus is not well) 2\. Breech position (the baby's bottom is down) 3\. Birth size 4\. Poor progress during labor Neonate first month after birth **Apgar scale to assess health immediately after birth** A screenshot of a medical report Description automatically generated Low Birth Weight - neonate weight under 2500 grams (5.5lbs) - lower levels of responsiveness at birth and months later Preterm - born before the 37^th^ weeks - if born 6 weeks or more early high levels of respiratory distress syndrome - most of preterm infants catch up by school entrance **INFANCY** **Brain** - midbrain, medulla most fully developed at birth - cortex is the least developed - neurons and glial cells - rapid development during first 2 years **Synaptogenesis** - creation of synapses / connections between neurons **Synaptic pruning** - at 18 months - Elimination of unused neural pathways and connections - Based on experience results in selective retention of neural pathway - Brains becomes more efficient - Denser dendrites and synapses than adult - Recover more easily than adults after head injury **Neural plasticity** - brain's ability to change in response to experience **Myelin** - insulating layer of proteins and fatty substances - most rapid during first 2 years, continue at a slower pace in childhood and adolescence - reticular formation: part of brain responsible for keeping attention and helping you sort out important and unimportant information Adaptive reflexes - reflexes that aid survival - e.g. sucking, withdrawal from a painful stimulus, opening and closing of pupil - some persist throughout life Primitive reflexes - controlled by the less sophisticated parts of brain (medulla and midbrain) - Moto / startle reflex: make a loud noise will cause baby throw arms outward and arch her back - Babinski reflex: stroke bottom of foot and baby will splay out toes and then curl them in - disappear by 6-8m - may indicate neurological problems if persistent Sleeping - Neonates sleep 80% of time - 8 weeks begin to sleep through night - 6 months 14 hours of sleep per day 5 States of sleep and wakefulness - Fussing緊張不安 drowsy deep sleep light sleep alert wakefulness - every 2 hours a cycle Crying - pattern: cry, silence, breath...... Physical change: growth Age one: 10-12 inches - infants triple body weight Age two: reach half their adult height - proportionately larger heads than adults Bones - ossification: process of hardening of the bones begins during prenatal development - changes in number and density of bones improve coordination - age 1: cartilage has developed into 3 separate bones Muscles - full complete of muscle fibers is present at birth - decline in muscle tissue to fat ratio occurs by age one (less baby fat) - water content of infants' muscles is equal to that of adults' by age one Breastfeeding - nutritionally superior more rapid weight gain and size - early health benefits - the only nutrition needed for first 4-6 months Bottle feeding - supplement for preterm babies - special-needs formulas - allow more paternal participation (father)  Age (months) Gross motor skills Fine motor skills -------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------ 1 stepping reflex, lifts head slightly抬頭 Hold objects if placed in hand 2-3 Lift head up to 90-degree angle when lying on stomach Swipe (hit) at objects in sight 4-6 Rolls over, sit with support, hold heads erect while sitting Reaches for and grasp objects 7-9 sits without support, crawls transfer objects from one hand to the other 10-12 Pulls self up, walk grasping furniture then walk alone show some signs of hand preference 13-18 walks backward, runs, claps put object into small container and dump them out 19-24 walk up and down stairs with 2 feet per step uses spoon to feed self, show clear hand preferences ê Gross motor: head rolls over, sit crawls walk run Gross motor ê Female infants: slight advantage in the development of fine motor skills ê Male infants: acquire gross motor skills faster Solid Food - should start between 4-6 months - first solid food: should be single-grain cereals (e.g. rice cereal) - no more than one new food each week Baby is ready for solid food when... 1\. Hold head in steady, upright position 2\. Sit with support 3\. Show interest in what you are eating Malnutrition - macronutrient malnutrition: diet that contains too few calories - marasmus: calorie deficit is severe - Kwashiorkor: not enough protein - micronutrient malnutrition: a deficiency of certain vitamins / minerals Vision - red, blue, green color vision at 1 month - visual acuity 20/20 at age 2, 20/200 at birth - tracking slow-moving object before 2 months - skilled tracking at 6-10 weeks Hearing - can hear general range of pitch and loudness of human voice - weaker in hearing high-pitched sounds - newborns: only general direction from which a sound has come Tasting - newborns prefer sweet tastes Touch and Motion - best developed of all the senses **Perceptual development 感知** Habituation - loss of interest in a particular stimulus after repeated exposures Dishabituation - recovered / restored behavioral response wherein the reaction towards a known stimulus is enhanced or changed **Depth perception** - 6-month-old babies will not cross the visual cliff 6m babies have depth perception - Binocular cues: involve both eyes; the closer the object, the more different the two views of eyes are (4 months) - Monocular cues: input from only one eye (5-7 months) e.g. linear perspective: railroad getting closer together as they get father away e.g. interposition: one object is partially in front of another, partially hidden object is father away - Kinetic cues: come from your own motion / motion of some object (3 months) e.g. motion parallax: when you move your head, objects near you seem to move more than objects farther away **Listening** 1 month -- discriminate between "pa" and "ba" 3 months -- respond to male, female, children's voices similarly 6 months -- discriminate between 2-syllable words (e.g. bada, baga) - distinguish sound contrasts in any language - lose ability to distinguish pairs of vowels that do not occur in language they hear 1 year -- ability to discriminate nonheard consonant contrasts begins to fade A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated - newborn can tell the mother's voice from another female voice (not father) - in utero learning appears to be responsible for newborns' preference for the maternal voice **Intermodal perception** - formation of perception of stimulus based on information from 2 or more senses - possible by 1 month - common by 6 months **Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage** 1\. Basic reflexes (0-1 month) - use of built-in schemes like sucking, looking - primitive schemes begin to change through small steps of accommodation 2\. Primary circular reaction (1-4 months) - many simple repetitive actions (e.g. sucking) - further accommodation of basic schemes - beginning coordination of schemes from different senses 3\. Secondary circular reaction (4-8 months) - more aware of events outside her body - imitation may occur (but only of schemes already in the baby's mind) - repeats some action to trigger a reaction outside her own body e.g. baby coos and mum smiles baby coos again 4\. Coordination of secondary schemas (8-12 months) - combine two schemes (e.g. moving a pillow aside to reach a toy) - imitation of novel behaviour occurs - the ability to keep a goal in mind and devise a plan to achieve it - means-end behavior (the end is toy they want, means to the end is moving the other toy away) 5\. Tertiary circular reaction (12-18 months) - try out new ways of playing with objects - purposeful trial-and-error exploration 6\. Transition to symbolic thought (18-24 months) - development of use of symbols to represent objects - deferred imitation becomes possible - generate solutions to problems simply by thinking about it (without trial-and-error) **Piaget: Object Permanence** - realization that objects still exist when hidden from sight - 2 months: infants show surprise when an object disappears - 6-8 months: infants will look for the missing object (will reach for partly hidden toy) - 8-12 months: infants will reach or search for a completely hidden toy ê 8-12 months: object permanence is limited by A-not-B error infants look for and object in the place where it was last seen (Position A), rather than in the place to which they have seem a researcher move it (Position B) **Piaget: Imitation** - 2 months: imitation of actions infants see themselves make (e.g. hand gestures) - 8-12 months: imitate other people's facial expressions - 12 months: imitation of any action that wasn't in child's repertoire begins - 18 months: deferred imitation imitation of some action later **Modeling** - Learn by watching models **Schematic learning** - organization of experiences into expectancies / schemas - schemas are built up over many exposures to particular experiences - 7 months infants actively use categories, but not levels - 2 years hierarchical categorization appears 等級制度 superordinate, subordinate  **Memory** - 3 months can remember specific objects and their own actions for as long as a week **Theories of language development** - **The behaviorist view (B.F. Skinner) (Nurture)** correct grammar and wordlike babbling are reinforced by parents, so it becomes more frequent non-grammatical words are not reinforced, thus disappear - **The nativist view (Noam Chomsky) (Nature)** children acquire grammar rules before they master the exceptions to them children's comprehension and production of language are guided by innate language processor called **Language Acquisition Device (LAD)** LAD tells baby there are consonant and vowels, LAD is human specific (only human) **Infant-Directed Speech / motherese (how people talk to infants)** - higher pitch - repetitions with variations - infant preferred - exaggeration - facial expression **Language Development in first 2 years** - 2-3 months making cooing sounds (vowel-like sound), respond with smile and cooing when someone talk to them - 20 weeks make various vowel and consonant sounds with cooing - 6 months Babbling (vowel and consonant) e.g. bababababaa, speak phonemes of all languages - 8-9 months has receptive vocabulary of 20-30 words (understand the meaning of words) - 12 months says single words (the first word) - 12-18 months use word-gesture combination combined with variations in intonation (holophrase單詞語句) - 18-20 months use two-word sentences (telegraphic speech), has expressive vocabulary of 100-200 words ê Inflections: grammatical markers Receptive language ability to understand words - 8 months: begin to store words in memory - 9-10 months: typically understand 20-30 words - 13 months: typically understand 100 words Expressive language ability to produce words Naming explosion (16-24 months) - 16 months: 50 words - 24 months: 320 words - name for things / people first, action words appear later (e.g. run, walk) ê Cooing Babbling first words holophrases naming explosion telegraphic speech Deictic gesture 指示 - 10-12 months - point to object - Imperative 命令: use to get something (give me that!) - Declarative陳述: develop after imperative develop shared attention of object use to learn about object, point to new toy (what is that?) Representational gesture - iconic - conventional gesture (bound to culture): waving bye, shaking head yes / no **Attachment** - emotional bond in which a person's sense of security is bound up in the relationship - first 2 years of life is the sensitive period for attachment in human infants - strong emotional bond making is innate (inborn) - affected by emotional availability and contingent responsiveness of caregivers - Mother: oxytocin hormone correlated with empathy and physical relaxation - Father: vasopressin hormone linked to physical activity Establishing Attachment: Bowlby's phases - **Non-focused orienting and signaling (0-3m)** use an innate set of behaviour patterns to signal need (e.g. cry) direct signals to everyone they come into contact - **Focus on one or more figures (3-6m)** direct "come here" signals to fewer people, less responsive to unfamiliar people - **Secure base behaviour (6-24m)** most important person used as a safe base for explorations stick close to primary caregivers - **Internal model (24+m)** children can imagine how her behaviour would affect the bonds with her caregiver Stranger anxiety - cling to caregiver when strangers are present Separation anxiety - infants cry when separated from caregivers - occurs when 6-8m, rises in frequency until about 12-16m, then declines Social referencing - use cues from caregivers' facial expressions - help babies learn to regulate their own emotions - begins at about 10 months **Ainsworth's Types** Insecure / avoidant attachment - avoid contact with mother - show no preference for mother over stranger - mother rejects or regularly withdraws from her infant. Insecure / ambivalent attachment 矛盾的 - greatly upset when separated from mother, not reassured by mother's return - may show anger toward mother at reunion - primary caregiver is inconsistently or unreliably available to the child Insecure / disorganized attachment - confusion, contradictory - likely when the child has been abused - parents don't know how to connect with children Importance of attachment - more sociable - more positive in relationships with friends - less aggressive and disruptive - more emotionally mature Personality: stable patterns in how people relate to those around them Temperament: basic behavioral and emotional predispositions 傾向 Five dimensions of temperament - activity level - sociability - inhibition and anxiety - irritability / emotionality - effortful control / task persistence Self-concept: awareness of self and perception of oneself - Subjective self: awareness by child that he is separate from others (8-12 months) - Objective self: understand he is an object in the world, the self has properties - Emotional self: interpret the emotional perceptions of others in 12m identify changes in emotional expression (2-3m) learn to read and respond to facial expression (7m) **EARLY CHILDHOOD** **Physical Growth Milestones** Age 2-3 - grow 2-3 inches per year - 6 pounds in weight per year - fine motor skills improve Age 4-5 - grow 2 inches per year - gross motor skills refine Age 6 - lose baby teeth - improved hand-eye coordination **Motor Development Milestones** Age Gross motor skills Fine motor skills -------- ----------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- 2-3 yr Runs easily Throw small ball while standing 3-4 yr Walk up stairs one foot per step, skips on two feet Cut paper with scissors, hold pencil between thumb and fingers 4-5 yr Walk up and down stairs one foot per step Kicks and catches ball, grasp pencil properly 5-6 yr Skips on alternate feet, walks on a line Play ball games well ê 5-6 years: not highly skilled on using pencil, cutting accurately with scissors Stages in children's drawing - 2-3 yr: scribbles: 潦草 - 3-4 yr: single units, like lines and simple shapes Older individuals often cannot recognize what the child's drawings represent - 4-5 yr: use single units in combination to create more complex compositions - 5-7 yr: multi-unit compositions are combined to represent complex objects, it is easily recognizable **Brain development** 1\. Synaptic pruning 2\. Myelination - nerve fibres coated with myelin increases speed of neural transmission, improve cognitive abilities 1^st^: myelination of reticular formation regulate attention and concentration 2^nd^: myelination of hippocampus cognitive development, involved in the transfer of information to long-term memory 3\. Hemispheric specialization hemispheres begin to specialize in different functions language development, spatial reasoning 4\. Prefrontal cortex development planning, impulse control, problem-solving 5\. Lateralization - growth of corpus callosum accompanied by functional specialization of the right and left hemispheres of the cortex 6\. Infantile amnesia - inability to remember much about the first 3 years of life - normal situation **Nutritional needs** 1\. Require 1000-1400 calories daily for healthy development, half as much food as adults 2\. 4-5 cups of water daily to maintain proper hydration **Factors contributing to child abuse and neglect** 1\. Family factors mental health issues, financial stress 2\. Social factors social isolation, lack of access to resources 3\. Child factors children with disabilities, premature / low-birth weight babies face increased vulnerability **Impact of abuse / neglect on child development** 1\. Cognitive effects 2\. Emotional consequences 3\. Social challenges problems with peer relationships and social skills 4\. Physical health chronic health issues **Cognitive development** **Piaget's Preoperational Stage** 1\. Symbolic thinking use symbols to represent objects e.g. in pretend play Semiotic function: understanding that one thing can stand for another (18-24 months) e.g. picture of a chair represents a real chair 2\. Egocentrism difficulty seeing perspectives other than their own assume others see the world as they do 3\. Centration focus on one aspect of situation while ignoring others 4\. Irreversibility inability to mentally reverse actions or operations 5\. Conservation (6-7 years) understanding that change in appearance can occur without change in quantity Unsuccessful conservation: centration, irreversibility 6\. Updating information - Assimilation - Accommodation **Theory of Mind (related to cognitive development)** 1\. Definition - ability to attribute mental states to others - understand that others have beliefs, desires 2\. Early signs - age 2: recognize others may want different things 3\. False Belief understanding - age 4-5: grasp that other can have false beliefs - tested by Sally-Anne test 4\. Advanced development - understanding of complex mental states - recognize that people can have thoughts about others' thoughts 5\. Reciprocal nature of thought (5-7 years) - means "You know that I know" **Neo-Piagetian theories** - Short-term storage space (STSS): child's working memory - Operational efficiency: maximum number of schemes that can be attended to in STSS **Information Processing Theory** Metamemory - knowledge about and control of memory processes - age 2-6 struggle with memory strategies Metacognition - knowledge about and control of thought processes - help children to solve problems Scripts (steps) - useful for dealing with tasks with multiple steps - can focus on quality of action rather than the procedure itself **Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)** Zone of proximal development - children learn through guided participation Cultural tools - language and cultural artifacts shape cognitive development Social interaction - learning through social relationships and collaborative activities **Language Development** Language Learning Gains 1\. Toddler Vocabulary - age 2.5 : around 600 words 2\. Preschool Explosion - age 5 / 6: up to 15000 words, increase of 10 words per day 3\. Rapid Word Learning - richer vocabulary, longer and more complex sentences Fast-Mapping - ability to categorically link new words to real-world objects or events rapid acquisition of new word meanings learn new words after minimal exposure children have the hypothesis of words, and tested it by getting feedback from parents **Grammar explosion** 1\. Onset - age 2-3: begin combining words into simple sentences 2\. Morphological Development - use plurals, past tense - apply grammatical rules to new words 3\. Sentence complexity - use conjunctions, more complex sentence 4\. Overgeneralization / overregularization (3-4 years) - apply grammatical rules too broadly e.g. "goed" instead of "went: **Strategies to support language development in young children** **1. Self-talk** - describing what you are doing - providing language input, help them learn new words **2. Parallel talk** - describing what your child is doing - help them connect words to actions and objects **3. Wait and see** - pausing, giving child time to respond **4. Modeling** - demonstrating correct language - using clear correct sentences (not child's language) **5. Expansion and recasting** - Expansion: expand child's language by adding more information - Recasting: rephrasing child's utterances into grammatically correct sentences **Atypical Development** - Language delays: child's language skills are developing at a slower pace than expected may increase risk of more serious and complex language disorders - Language disorders: significant and persistent difficulties with language development Factors influencing language development - biological: genes - environmental: interactions with caregivers - socioeconomic: access to resources - individual differences Personality - combination of temperament at birth and knowledge about temperament-related behaviour during childhood **Self-concept development** 1. Early self-recognition - age 2: recognize themselves in mirror - use personal pronouns 2. Categorical self - identify gender, age 3. Comparative self-evaluation - age 4-5: children compare themselves to peers 4. Ideal self - form ideas about who they want to be **Kohlberg's Stage Theory of Gender identity development** - Gender awareness & identity age 2-3: identify themselves and others as boys / girls - Gender stability: understanding that people stay the same gender throughout life age 4-5: understanding that gender remains constant - Gender constancy (developed after gender stability) recognition that someone stays the same gender even though he may appear to change by wearing different clothes or changing his hair length - Gender stereotypes (age 3-4) show preferences for gender-typical toys and activities assign stereotypic occupations, toys, activities to each gender Sex-typed social behaviors - Enabling style (Girls): supporting the friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions - Restrictive / constricting style (Boys): tend to inhibit the partner or cause the partner to withdraw Emotional development 1\. Emotion recognition - understand complex emotions like pride and shame 2\. Emotion regulation - ability to manage emotional responses 3\. Empathy development - understand and share others' feelings 4\. Emotional expression - can communicate feelings in socially appropriate ways Social development - age 3-4: parallel play to cooperative play (engage in joint activities) - friendship formation (close friendship) - rule understanding learn to follow simple game rules, social rules - conflict resolution Peer relationships: Prosocial behaviors (intend to benefit others) - sharing - helping - cooperation Peer relationships: Aggression - physical aggression peak at age 2-3 - verbal aggression use words to express frustration - relational aggression social exclusion / manipulation of friendships Person perception: child describe a peer as "nice" or "not nice" Stages in development of empathy 1\. Global empathy - beginning to cry when he hears another infant crying 2\. Egocentric empathy - offering what they themselves would find most comforting to comfort others 3\. Empathy of another's feelings - able to distinguish a wider range of emotions 4\. Empathy of another's life condition - respond to the others' general situation / plight **Erikson's psychosocial theory** - **Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (age 1.5-3)** learning to control bodies and emotions, parents can foster independence by allowing safe choices Too much freedom / constantly criticized: shame and doubt - **Initiative vs Guilt (age 3-5)** initiative: plan and carry out tasks guilt: overly criticized / punished lack of confidence, fear of taking risks, become hesitant to try new things Freud's view - Anal stage (1-3 years): toilet training - Phallic stage: establish a foundation for later gender and moral development by identifying with the same-sex parent Parenting styles 1. Authoritarian - strict rules, high expectations - high demands and punishment, low communication 2. Permissive - few rules, high levels of warmth - low demands, high responsiveness 3. Authoritative - most balanced approach - combination of warmth and clear demands 4. Uninvolved - lack of warmth, communication Types of Play - symbolic play: use objects to represent other things - sociodramatic play / pretend play: role-playing, pretend scenarios with peers exhibit some pretending at 12 months, 15-21 months: the recipient of pretend action becomes another person / doll substitute pretend play: use objects to represent other objects - constructive play: building and creating with materials, understanding of the rules that govern physical reality - physical play: active games, gross motor activities - cooperative play: play together with shared goals - solitary play: playing alone - onlooker play: watching another child playing - parallel play: 2 or more children play together with toys - associative play: pursue their own activities but also engage in spontaneous, though short-lived, social interactions **MIDDLE CHILDHOOD** **Growth and motor development** Girls - slightly more fat and less muscle - better coordination - age 12: 94% of adult height attained Boys - stronger - age 12: 84% of adult height Brain and nervous system - 6-8 years: increases in the sensory and motor cortex improved fine motor skills - 10-12 years: frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses improvement in prefrontal cortex functions (problem solving, inhibiting things you want to do) - Frontal lobes and reticular formation links improve develop selective and focused attention Cognitive changes - Spatial perception lateralization improves learning math concepts, problem solving - Spatial cognition make predictions about movements of objects in space left-right orientation Health - Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) injury to head results in diminished brain function - Asthma chronic disease that causes airways to become sore and swollen - Obesity excess body fat that has adverse effects on health risk associated: early puberty, sleep disorders, diabetes (physical) ; peer discrimination, social isolation (social) ; reduced rates of college attendance (cognitive) Language - Improved grammar skills and pronunciation - Increase vocabulary, esp. derived words (prefix / suffix) - Increase of 5000-10000 words per year Literacy: ability to read and write - Phonological awareness increases sensitivity to the sound patterns that are specific to the language being acquired - Balanced approach using systematic and explicit phonics - Sound-symbol connections Piaget's concrete operational stage: able to think logically about concrete concepts, but have difficulty understanding abstract concept - Can easily solve conservation tasks - Construction of schemes that enable children to think logically - Decentration: taking multiple variables into account - Reversibility: mentally undoing a physical / mental transformation - Inductive logic: moving from personal experience to a general principle Advances in info-processing skills - Processing efficiency ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity major component of cognitive growth increases speed of cognitive processing - Automaticity ability to recall information from long-term memory without using short-term memory capacity free up short-term memory space - Executive processes (executive functions)\ allowing a person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and problem solving - Metacognition memory strategies (e.g. combine similar info together) - Expertise categorize information in complex and hierarchical ways Intelligence: ability to take in and use information to function within a particular environment - Standardized tests: comparing a student's score to an average score - Achievement tests: designed to assess specific information learnt in School - Paper and pencil intelligence tests: result in misclassification of minority students - Intelligence quotient (IQ) = (mental age / chronological age) x100 - Flynn effect: average IQ scores increased in every racial group throughout the industrialized world during 19^th^ and 20^th^ centuries Special educational needs - Learning disability: achievement 2 or more years behind expectations based on intellifence test child has difficulty in mastering a specific academic skill e.g. dyslexia: skill deficit specific to reading may have trouble understanding the sound and structure of language - Communication disorder in speech / language: impairment in comprehension / use of any aspect of language - Attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): mental disorder that causes children to have difficulty attending to and completing tasks Causes: neurological differences, functional differences in right hemisphere, preterm babies have higher risk of getting ADHD Erickson's stage - Industry vs Inferiority Bandura's theories - Social learning theory role of observation and imitation in the learning process - Self-efficacy theory person's belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation Bandura's determinism model The big five personality traits Self-concept: The psychological self understanding of his / her enduring psychological characteristics more complex less tied to external features Self-concept: Self-efficacy individual's belief in his or her capacity to cause intended events social comparisons encouragement from valued sources (parents) Self-concept: Self-esteem discrepancy between what one desires and perceived achievement stable in the short term Piaget's Moral reasoning - Judgments about the rightness and wrongness of specific actions Moral realism - Belief that rules can't be changed because they come from authority figures - Belief that violating rules leads to punishment Moral relativism - Rules can be changed if all agree Friendship - Peer importance increases in middle childhood - Depend on reciprocal trust by age 10 - Help with problem solving and conflict management Aggression - Relational aggression: aimed at damaging another person's self-esteem / peer relationships cruel gossip, facial expressions of disdain 藐視 more often in girls - Retaliatory aggression: to get back at someone who has hurt you - Instrumental aggression: aim at gaining or damaging some object Bullying: complex form of aggression Social status - Popular children: attractive and physically larger display positive social behaviors towards most other children take turns in conversation perceptive and empathetic - Neglected: not actively disliked by peers doesn't make effort to make friends socially unnoticed - Rejected: lack social skills actively disliked by peers aggressive, often refuse to follow rules of game