Developmental Psychology Basics

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Questions and Answers

What is a key indicator that a Cesarean section may be necessary during labor?

Mother experiences excessive fatigue

Fetal distress during labor (correct)

Neonate is in the breech position after birth

Presence of low birth weight

Which factor is associated with a neonate born with low birth weight?

Weighing less than 2500 grams at birth (correct)

Being born after the 40th week of gestation

Higher levels of responsiveness immediately after birth

Frequent movement in utero

What occurs during synaptic pruning?

Formation of additional neurons in response to stimuli

Accelerated myelination of existing connections

Elimination of unused neural pathways and connections (correct)

Creation of new neural pathways based on experiences

Which brain region is most fully developed at birth?

Medulla Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of myelin in the brain?

To insulate axons and increase nerve impulse speed Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of hardening of bones that begins during prenatal development?

Ossification Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants typically reach half their adult height?

2 years Signup and view all the answers

Which primitive reflex involves the response of the baby throwing arms outward and arching the back?

Moro reflex Signup and view all the answers

How much sleep do infants typically get by the time they are six months old?

14 hours per day Signup and view all the answers

What should be the first solid food introduced to infants between 4-6 months?

Single-grain cereals Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the five states of sleep and wakefulness in infants?

Resting Signup and view all the answers

What significant change in muscle composition occurs by age one?

Decline in muscle tissue to fat ratio Signup and view all the answers

What motor skill is typically developed by infants aged 4-6 months?

Crawls Signup and view all the answers

What nutritional advantage does breastfeeding offer to infants?

Rapid weight gain and size improvement Signup and view all the answers

Which reflex where the baby splays out and then curls their toes is known as?

Babinski reflex Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive development occurs between the ages of 4 and 5 regarding understanding beliefs?

Children grasp that others can have false beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

Which development is associated with the concept of the 'zone of proximal development'?

Children learn through guided participation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of scripts in cognitive development?

Focusing on the quality of action rather than the procedure. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do children typically begin using conjunctions to create more complex sentences?

Age 2-3 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies involves describing what a child is doing to enhance their language development?

Parallel talk Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of metamemory in young children?

To understand and control memory processes. Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'fast-mapping' in language development?

Children can learn new words after minimal exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes overgeneralization in young children's grammar usage?

Broadly applying grammatical rules to new words. Signup and view all the answers

What defines polygenic inheritance?

Multiple genes influence a single trait. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the fetal stage of development is true?

The fetus can recognize its mother's voice by week 25. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes a critical period in development?

A specific timeframe where certain experiences must occur. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the concept of continuity vs discontinuity?

Whether development proceeds in a smooth or abrupt manner. Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of maternal tobacco use during pregnancy?

Lower birth weight. Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is associated with the absence of one member of a chromosome pair?

Monosomy Signup and view all the answers

What milestone typically occurs during the second trimester of pregnancy?

Fetal movements begin to be felt. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key advantage of the lifespan perspective in development?

It recognizes the multi-contextual nature of development. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between a critical period and a sensitive period?

Sensitive periods are broader and allow for a range of experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of male fetuses during pregnancy?

More vulnerability to prenatal problems. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of prosocial behaviors in peer relationships?

Sharing and helping others Signup and view all the answers

During which stage does a child likely begin to cry when hearing another infant cry?

Global empathy Signup and view all the answers

What results from excessive criticism during the Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt stage according to Erikson's psychosocial theory?

Shame and doubt in abilities Signup and view all the answers

What defines the Initiative vs Guilt stage in early childhood development?

Planning and carrying out tasks while facing potential guilt Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a typical component of authoritarian parenting?

High responsiveness to child's needs Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the anal stage in Freud's theory?

Learning control over bodily functions through toilet training Signup and view all the answers

At what age does physical aggression typically peak according to the content?

Age 2-3 Signup and view all the answers

In the transition from parallel play to cooperative play, what skill is crucial for children aged 3-4?

Engaging in joint activities and building friendships Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nature vs Nurture

Environment and Genetics.
A constant debate on which factor influences development more.

Continuity vs Discontinuity

Continuity: Some aspects of development are continuous, like the existence of peer relationships at all ages.
Discontinuity: Other aspects, like characteristics of friendship, vary significantly with age.

The Lifespan Perspective

Emphasizes the multi-contextual nature of development, meaning multiple factors interact.
Focuses on Plasticity and Adaptability - the ability to change across the lifespan.

Critical Periods

Specific periods of development marked by heightened sensitivity to certain stimuli.
Example: If an infant's eyes are covered for weeks, they may develop blindness.

Sensitive Periods

Wider timeframes than critical periods, spanning months or years.
Example: Attachment formation between 6 to 12 months.

Birth

Genotype: An individual's genetic blueprint.
Phenotype: Observable traits resulting from genotype expression.
Polygenic Inheritance: Many genes contribute to a single trait, like height or personality.
Multifactorial Inheritance: Both genes and environment affect the expression of traits .

Trisomy and Monosomy

Trisomy: An extra chromosome (e.g. Down syndrome with 3 chromosomes on pair 21).
Monosomy: The absence of a chromosome in a pair.

Down Syndrome

A genetic disorder characterized by intellectual disability.
Results in distinctive facial features and physical abnormalities.

Embryonic Stage

Lasts from 2 to 8 weeks after conception.
Development of the Neural Tube, which leads to the formation of the spine and brain.
Foundation of body organs and systems begins to form.

Fetal Stage

Starts at the end of week 8 and lasts until birth.
Refinement of organ systems occurs.
Rapid neuronal proliferation takes place.
Fetus considered viable at 24 weeks (capable of survival outside the womb).
Full-term at week 37.
Recognizes the mother's voice at week 25.
Differentiates familiar and novel stimuli at 32-33 weeks.
Displays fetal yawning between 10-15 weeks.

Prenatal Sex Differences

Male:
- More physically active in the womb.
- Higher risk of miscarriage.
- More vulnerable to prenatal problems.
Female:
- More sensitive to external stimulation.
- More rapid skeletal development.

Milestones of Pregnancy

1st Trimester

From the first day of the last menstrual period to 12 weeks.
Missed period, breast enlargement, abdominal thickening, and regular prenatal care are crucial.
Potential problems: Miscarriage and bleeding.

2nd Trimester

From 12 weeks after LMP to 24 weeks after LMP.
Increased appetite, fetal movements become noticeable.
Monthly doctor visits, ultrasound examinations.
Potential problems: Gestational diabetes, increased blood pressure, premature labor.

3rd Trimester

From 25 weeks after LMP to the beginning of labor.
Breast discharge, weekly doctor visits (more frequent during the 32nd week), pelvic exams to check cervical dilation.
Women over 35 face an increased risk of low-lying placenta and preterm birth.

Effects of Prenatal Exposure

Tobacco: Lower birth weight; higher rates of learning problems and ADHD.
Alcohol: Intellectual disability, perceptual difficulties, shorter stature, and smaller heads.

Stages of Birth

Stage 1: Contractions, dilation of the cervix.
Stage 2: Delivery of the baby.
Stage 3: Delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord.

Cesarean Section (C-section)

Reasons for C-section:
- Fetal distress
- Breech position
- Baby's size
- Slow labor progress.

Neonate (First Month)

Apgar scale: Evaluates the newborn's health immediately after birth.

Low Birth Weight

Neonate weighs under 2,500 grams (5.5 lbs)
Decreased responsiveness at birth and in subsequent months.

Preterm

Born before the 37th week of gestation.
Preterm infants born 6 weeks or more early experience high levels of respiratory distress syndrome.
Most preterm infants catch up developmentally by school entrance.

Infancy

Brain Development

At birth, the midbrain and medulla are the most developed areas.
The cortex is the least developed.
Neurons and glial cells are present at birth.
Rapid brain development occurs during the first two years.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of synapses, or connections between neurons.

Synaptic Pruning

Starts around 18 months of age.
Elimination of unused neural pathways.
Experience plays a crucial role in shaping these connections.
The brain becomes more efficient as a result.
Infants have denser dendrites and synapses than adults.
They recover more easily from head injuries than adults.

Neural Plasticity

The brain's ability to adapt and change in response to experience.

Myelin

An insulating layer of proteins and fatty substances.
Most rapid development occurs during the first two years, slowing down during childhood and adolescence.
Important for efficient signal transmission.
Plays a critical role in the reticular formation, the part of the brain responsible for attention and filtering important from unimportant information.

Reflexes

Adaptive Reflexes: Present at birth, aid in survival.
- Examples: Sucking, withdrawing from pain, pupil dilation.
- Some persist throughout life.
Primitive Reflexes: Controlled by less sophisticated brain areas (medulla and midbrain).
- Examples: Moro reflex (startle), Babinski reflex (toe splaying and curling)
- Disappear by 6-8 months.
- Persistence after this age may indicate neurological problems.

Sleep

Neonates sleep 80% of the time.
By 8 weeks, most infants begin to sleep through the night.
By 6 months, infants sleep about 14 hours per day.
5 states of sleep and wakefulness: Fussing, Drowsy, Deep Sleep, Light Sleep, Alert Wakefulness.

Crying

Crying often signals physical changes like growth.
A regular pattern: Cry, silence, breath.

Physical Growth

Age 1: Infants triple their body weight.
Age 2: Infants reach half their adult height.
Infants have proportionally larger heads compared to adults.

Bone Development

Ossification: Hardening of bones, begins prenatally.
Changes in bone number and density improve coordination.
By age 1, cartilage has developed into 3 separate bones.

Muscle Development

Full complement of muscle fibers present at birth.
Decrease in the muscle tissue to fat ratio occurs by age one.
Water content of infants' muscles is equal to adults' by age one.

Nutrition

Breastfeeding: Nutritional superiority, faster weight gain and size, benefits throughout life.
Bottle-feeding: Supplemental for preterm babies, special needs formulas, allows fathers to participate more in feeding.

Gross Motor Skills

Age (Months)\t\t\tGross Motor Skills\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFine Motor Skills*
-------\t\t\t-------\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t--------*
1\t\t\t\t\t\tStepping reflex, lifts head slightly\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHold objects if placed in hand*
2-3\t\t\t\tLifts head up to 90 degree angle when lying on stomach\t\t\t\tSwipe (hit) at objects in sight*
4-6\t\t\t\t\tRolls over, sits with support, holds head erect while sitting\t\t\tReaches for and grasps objects*
7-9\t\t\t\t\t\tSits without support, crawls\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTransfer objects from one hand to the other*
10-12\t\t\t\tPulls self up, walks grasping furniture then walk alone\t\t\tShows some signs of hand preference*
13-18\t\t\t\tWalks backward, runs, claps\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPut objects into small containers and dump them out*
19-24\t\t\t\tWalks up and down stairs with 2 feet per step\t\t\t\t\t\tUses spoon to feed self, shows clear hand preferences*

Motor Skills

Gross motor skills: Rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking, running.
Female infants have a slight advantage in developing fine motor skills.
Male infants develop gross motor skills at a faster rate.

Solid Food

Start between 4 to 6 months.
First solid food: Single-grain cereals like rice cereal.

Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
- Birth to 2 years.
- Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
- Develop object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist even when not in sight.
- Progress from reflexive actions to goal-directed behavior.

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Ages 2 to 7 years.
Develop symbolic thought and language, but struggle with logic and conservation (the understanding that the amount of a substance remains the same even if its appearance changes).
Engage in preoperational thought characterized by egocentrism and centration.

Theory of Mind

Ability to understand that others have different thoughts, beliefs, and feelings than oneself.
Develops gradually throughout childhood.

Stages of Theory of Mind:

A rudimentary understaning.
- Infants have an early grasp of goals and intentions.
Desire Psychology (age 2-3):
- Understanding that people have desires and these desires can influence behavior.
Belief-Desire Psychology (age 3-4):
- Understanding that people have beliefs and that beliefs, even if false, can shape their actions.
- A developing grasp of false beliefs.
Advanced development:
- Understanding of complex mental states.
- The ability to recognize that people have thoughts about others' thoughts. 5 Reciprocal nature of thought (5-7 years):
- Understanding that "You know that I know".

Neo-Piagetian Theories

Focus on working memory and operational efficiency.
Short-term storage space (STSS): Child's working memory capacity.
Operational efficiency: Maximum number of schemes that can be actively processed in working memory at a time.

Information Processing Theory

Metamemory: Knowledge about and control of memory processes.
- Children under age 6 struggle with memory strategies.
Metacognition: Knowledge about and control of thought processes.
- Helps children solve problems more effectively.
Scripts (steps): Useful for tasks with multiple steps.
Allow children to shift focus from the procedure to the quality of the action.

Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

Emphasis on social interaction and guided participation.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can achieve independently and what they can achieve with assistance.
Cultural tools: Language and cultural artifacts shape cognitive development.

Language Development:

Toddler Vocabulary: Around 600 words by age 2.5.
Preschool Explosion: Vocabulary expands rapidly, adding up to 15,000 words by age 5/6.
Rapid Word Learning: Children learn new words at a phenomenal rate.

Fast-Mapping

The ability to link new words to objects or events rapidly.
Children develop hypotheses about words and test them through feedback from adults.

Grammar Explosion

Onset: Combine words into simple sentences (age 2-3).
Morphological Development: Plurals, past tense, applying grammatical rules to new words.
Sentence Complexity: Conjunctions, more complex sentences.
Overgeneralization/ Overregularization: Applying grammatical rules too broadly (age 3-4).

Strategies to Support Language Development:

Self-talk: Describing what you're doing.
Parallel talk: Describing what your child is doing.
Emotional expression: Helping children communicate their feelings.

Age 3-4: Transition from parallel play to cooperative play.
Friendship formation, following simple rules, conflict resolution.
Prosocial behavior: Sharing, helping, cooperation.
Aggression:
- Physical aggression peaks at age 2-3.
- Verbal aggression becomes more common.
- Relational aggression: Social exclusion and manipulation.

Empathy Development

Global empathy: Crying when another infant cries.
Egocentric empathy: Offering what they would find comforting to others.
Empathy of another's feelings: Recognizing a wider range of emotions.
Empathy of another's life conditions: Responding to a peer's general situation.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (age 1.5-3)
- Learning to control bodies and emotions.
- Parents can encourage independence by allowing safe choices.
- Too much freedom or constant criticism leads to shame and doubt.
Initiative vs Guilt (age 3-5)
- Initiative: Planning and carrying out tasks.
- Guilt: Results from over-criticism and punishment.
- Can lead to fear of taking risks and hesitation in trying new things.

Freud's View

Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focused on toilet training.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Identifies with same-sex parent, setting the foundation for gender and moral development.

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian: Strict rules, high expectations, high demands, punishment, low communication.
Permissive: Few rules, high levels of warmth, low demands, high responsiveness.
Authoritative: Balanced approach, combines warmth with clear demands, encourages independence, effective communication.
Neglectful: Uninvolved, low demands, low responsiveness.

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This quiz covers essential concepts in developmental psychology, specifically focusing on childbirth, neonate characteristics, brain development, and myelination. Test your understanding of these foundational topics and enhance your knowledge in psychology.