SLA PDF

(1) Language: a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds,gestures, or marks having understood meaning is for: Communication Cooperation Identity Social bonding The Nature of Language...

(1) Language: a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds,gestures, or marks having understood meaning is for: Communication Cooperation Identity Social bonding The Nature of Language: Unconscious Acquisition: Normal humans unconsciously acquire language knowledge in the first few years of life, (grammatical structures like relative clauses) Components of Language Knowledge: phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics (are described systematically) Sound Systems (Phonology): Complex Phonological Knowledge: Native speakers possess complex knowledge of what sounds are possible or not in their language. Phonological Changes in Fast Speech: Native speakers modify sounds in fast speech, combining words differently than in clear, articulated speech. Awareness of Sound Combinations: Native speakers know possible combinations of sounds, including which sounds can blend in words and where certain sounds can appear in words. Syntax: Prescriptive grammar: rules taught in schools, often differing from how native speakers use language. Descriptive grammars: aim to describe languages as they are used. Knowledge of Syntax: Native speakers know the order of elements in a sentence. They recognize grammatical sentences and understand sentence structure. Morphology and the Lexicon: The study of word formation morphemes: units of meaning. bound morphemes: unable to stand alone free morphemes: independent words. Semantics: Study of meaning. Native speakers understand reference, homonyms, and how sentence structure affects meaning. Pragmatics: Deals with language use in context. Native speakers understand the implied meaning in situations, considering context and word order. First language: a person's native or mother tongue an individual learns first and acquires naturally as a part of their upbringing. spoken in the individual's family or community during early childhood. plays a crucial role in shaping a person's cognitive and linguistic development. For many people, their first language is the language spoken by their parents or caregivers in their home environment. In multicultural or multilingual societies, individuals may have more than one first language if they are exposed to multiple languages from an early age. Second language: an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. Second Language Acquisition Perspectives: Linguistic Perspective: Linguists focus on differences and similarities in languages being learned. Emphasis on linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) at different acquisition stages. Psychological Perspective: Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize cognitive processes in language acquisition. Focus on the representation of language(s) in the brain. Sociolinguistic Perspective: Sociolinguists highlight variability in learner linguistic performance. Scope extends to communicative competence (underlying knowledge accounting for language use/pragmatic competence). Social Psychological Perspective: Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena. Focus on identity, social motivation, and interactional/larger social contexts of learning. Foreign language:  not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context which might be used for future travel/ other cross-cultural communication situations/ studied as a curricular requirement/ elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application. Target language (TL): The language being learned Native Language (NL): The first language a child learns, also known as the primary language/ mother tongue/ L1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): The discipline studying the process of learning another language after acquiring the native language. Refers broadly to acquiring non native languages (including third or fourth languages) The second language: L2 Foreign Language Learning: Differs from SLA It involves learning a non native language within the environment of one's native language (often in a classroom setting) Library language: functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue. Auxiliary language: Learners need to know it for some official functions in their immediate political setting/ for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives. (2) Foundations of SLA: Monolingualism: Ability to use only one language. Bilingualism: Ability to use two languages Multilingualism: Ability to use more than two languages. Vivian Cook (1991): introduces the concept of multilingual competence. Multicompetence: refers to the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars. Monocompetence: refers to knowledge of only one language. Evolution and Scope of Second Language Acquisition (SLA): SLA is a relatively young field, with significant development in the past 40–45 years. The study has evolved from descriptive studies to interdisciplinary research connecting with fields such as linguistics, psychology, sociology, and education. The scope of SLA involves: understanding how individuals learn second languages create new language systems the factors influencing proficiency. The four mostly commonly used languages: Chinese (L1) , English(L2), Spanish, and Hindi. Difference bet Children & Adults in acquiring L2 acquisition: Children: grow up in a multilingual environment where they acquire multilingual competence in a natural course where using two or more languages with the people around them. Adults: Invasion Economic domains Immigration Religion Education Occupational or social advancement Culture The numbers of L1 & L2 can only estimated due to: Personal sensitivities Political/ Religious/ Social aims #Hindi & Urdu/ Bosnian & Montenegrin/ Haitian Creole Hindi & Urdu: are counted as distinct languages in India. are mutually intelligible. are treated as two separate languages. (Political motivations) Bosnian & Montenegrin: are different from each other. are separate languages. The government considers them two dialects of the same language to achieve unity and cohesion. Haitian Creole:  A contact language bet slaves who spoke African languages & French speaking slave traders and colonists evolving its own systematic grammar while incorporating vocabulary from French. Pidgin & Creole: Pidgin: a simplified language that develops as a means of communication bet speakers of different native languages who need to interact for trade/ labor/ other purposes. Pidgins typically have simplified grammar and vocabulary drawn from multiple languages. They usually lack native speakers are used only as a second language Creole: It develops from pidgin when it becomes the native language of a community. Creoles emerge when children grow up learning a pidgin as their first language it becomes more complex and grammatically developed over time. have native speakers & are fully developed languages with their own grammar, vocabulary, & syntax. The nature of language learning: Simultaneous Multilingualism: Acquiring more than one language at the same time. Sequential Multilingualism: L2 is acquired after L1. Innate Capacity for Language Learning: Humans are born with a natural ability to learn language. explains why children across different languages begin to learn their native language at similar ages and in similar ways. Universal Principles of Language Acquisition: abstract principles common to all languages programmed into humans by virtue of being human. Children have an innate ability to process linguistic input & deduce grammatical rules without explicit instruction. (Noam Chomsky) Gradual Language Development: Children's language development progresses through stages acquiring increasingly complex structures & rules over time.  Differences bet children's language & adult language are considered normal developmental stages (not failures) Critical Period for Language Acquisition: the process (lang. Acquisition) being less effective if it doesn't begin in childhood. Progress in language development typically slows around puberty (regardless of the starting age) Role of Social Experience in Language Acquisition: Language-specific learning plays a crucial role alongside innate ability in first language (L1) acquisition. Children must be exposed to & interact with the language(s) they are expected to learn. Social experience, including language input & interaction, is necessary for language acquisition. Effect of Intentional Teaching: Intentional teaching of L1 to young children is not necessary & may have little effect on language acquisition. Parents' corrections/ simplifications of children's language often do not significantly impact the rate of language acquisition. Variety in Sources of Language Input: Sources of L1 input & interaction vary across cultures & social contexts. Mothers are often assumed to be the primary source of early language input Other family members/ caregivers may also play significant roles. Influence of Social Context on Language Development: The rate & sequence of phonological & grammatical development do not systematically vary based on the source of language input. Social experiences influence the development of different verbal skills (those needed for interacting with peers) Multilingual Environments: Children raised in them have the innate capacity to learn all languages they are exposed to. They can learn the language-specific features of each language without explicit instruction. Fluency Acquisition in Childhood: Despite their cognitive limitations, children acquire native fluency in their language through exposure & interaction. The ability to acquire language is not solely dependent on intellectual process  Even children with average intelligence achieve fluency. Comparison of L1 & L2 is divided into 3 phases: 1)Initial State: L1: Children possess an innate capacity for language learning. There's a general agreement among linguists and psychologists about this innate ability. It's widely believed that this natural ability remains with individuals throughout life. L2: There's uncertainty regarding whether older learners have the same innate capacity as children for language acquisition. Some believe that aspects of this innate capacity might persist Others argue that it diminishes with age or is altogether absent. Prior Knowledge: L2 learners: have prior knowledge of their L1, which influences L2 acquisition (understanding how language works in general & specific features of their L1) possess real-world knowledge that young children lack when they start learning their L1. have acquired interactional skills (requesting, commanding, promising…) through their L1 acquisition process, which they bring to L2 learning. 2) Intermediate State: L1: children develop what is referred to as "child grammar" as they progress through language acquisition. L2: learners develop what is termed "learner language" (interlanguage) influenced by both the L1 and the target L2, leading to a unique linguistic system. Similarities Between L1 and L2 Development: Systematic Development: Both L1 and L2 learning follow systematic development with predictable sequencing of linguistic phenomena. Creative Role: Learners in both L1 and L2 contexts actively participate in their language development, contributing creatively rather than just mimicking input. Processes Involved in L2 Development: Cognitive Maturation: In L1 development, cognitive maturation closely correlates with language development. In L2 development, cognitive maturity cannot be considered a significant factor. Inference of Developmental Processes:  Developmental processes in language learning are inferred from learners' utterances at different stages. Cross-Linguistic Influence: Occurs across vocabulary/ pronunciation/ grammar/ other aspects of language. One significant process in L2 development Involving transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2. Transfer of World Knowledge: Positive Transfer: When an L1 structure or rule is appropriately used in L2. Negative Transfer (Interference): When an L1 structure or rule leads to errors in L2. Examples of Cross-Linguistic Influence: Vocabulary: Words with similar form and meaning in both languages can transfer appropriately. (Positive transfer) Pronunciation: Inappropriate transfer of L1 pronunciation to L2 results in a foreign accent. (Negative transfer) Grammar: Interference in grammar is evident in utterances that deviate significantly from native-like speech. (Positive/ Negative) Access to World Knowledge: Older learners have access to world knowledge acquired through cognitive development and life experience, which aids in L2 learning. Conceptual Transfer: Learners may have advanced world knowledge that exceeds their L2 proficiency, but they can convey these concepts partially in context, facilitating vocabulary learning. #Immigrant students may have advanced knowledge in academic subjects or vocational skills, which require language-specific forms for expression in L2. #International Students who already study engineering and computer science find it much easier to learn English Some individuals are more successful in acquiring a second language than others: Facilitating conditions: Feedback & Error Correction: In L2 learning, feedback and correction of errors play a crucial role in facilitating progress ( it can greatly impact both the rate & ultimate level of proficiency.) In L1 acquisition correction doesn't significantly influence development Aptitude: refers to the innate abilities and cognitive capacities individuals possess memory capacity & analytic ability  can significantly influence the ease & speed with which someone learns a second language. Motivation: Motivation is a key facilitator in L2 learning. It encompasses both the need and desire to learn the language. Highly motivated learners tend to be more successful in acquiring a second language compared to those who lack motivation. Instruction: explicit teaching or instruction in formal settings like schools can greatly facilitate L2 learning (Unlike L1) structured lessons, curriculum, & teaching methodologies designed specifically for SLA 3)Final state: It is the outcome of L1 or L2 learning. L1: Children achieve native competence in their L1 by around the age of five or six. vocabulary & specialized registers may continue to develop the basic phonological & grammatical systems are established without extraordinary effort. L2 : never reaches native linguistic competence While some learners may achieve near-native proficiency many reach a plateau where further progress is limited. Factors such as L1 interference and fossilization may occur, leading to varied levels of proficiency in L2. The possibility of exceptionally successful learners achieving proficiency comparable to their L1 challenges the traditional definition of "native speaker." The Logical Problem of Language Learning: Achievement of Final State in L1 Development: how children achieve native linguistic competence in their first language despite the complexity of the linguistic system and their immature cognitive capacity. Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar suggests that innate linguistic knowledge underlies this achievement. Arguments Supporting Innate Language Ability: Poverty-of-the-Stimulus Argument: Children's linguistic knowledge surpasses the input they receive, suggesting the existence of innate language-learning constructs. Diff between principles & constraints: Constraints: limitations/ rules that govern the structure & formation of language. Principles: general rules/ guidelines that describe how languages function. General Constraints and Principles: Children exhibit knowledge of general constraints and principles of language cannot be learned solely through imitation or deduction. Universal Patterns of Development: Despite surface-level differences in linguistic input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition across languages, indicating innate representations in children's minds. The logical problem of language learning extends to SLA, questioning how individuals achieve multilingual competence beyond what is learned from input. L2 learners: develop an underlying system of knowledge about the language (similar to L1 learners) but face different challenges and outcomes. Understanding differential levels of multilingual achievement requires consideration of various factors: social/ cognitive/ innate/ maturational factors. Evolution of Language Learning Theories (L2): Interest in L2 learning predominantly linked to foreign language teaching pre-1960s. After 1960, scholars began to put systematic theories to answer the research questions. Structuralism (Bloomfield 1933): focused on analyzing different levels of speech production. Phonology (sound systems) Morphology (word composition) Syntax (grammatical relationships) Semantics (meaning) Lexicon (vocabulary) provided a systematic framework for analyzing language, breaking it down into manageable components. focused primarily on description rather than explaining the process of language acquisition. Behaviorism (Skinner 1957): introduced S-R-R model (The Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement model) ( a fundamental concept in behaviorist psychology) provides a framework for understanding how external stimuli, behavioral responses, & reinforcements interplay to shape human behavior. Stimulus : The environmental factor that provokes a response. Response: The observable reaction to the stimulus.  Reinforcement: The consequences that follow the response, affecting its future occurrence. Emphasized habit formation through S-R-R model: Stimuli: from environment (linguistic input) Responses: to stimuli Reinforcement: for desired outcomes Learning: seen as the result of repeated S-R-R sequences. Behaviorism emphasized the role of conditioning in language learning, suggesting that repeated exposure to linguistic stimuli would lead to the formation of language habits. it overlooked the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition. (Imitation and Repetition) Audiolingual Method: Intersection of Structuralism and Behaviorism Approach to language teaching: - Emphasized repetition and habit formation. - Widely practiced globally until the 1980s. was heavily influenced by both Structuralism & Behaviorism (extensive repetition and habit formation) it provided a structured approach to language teaching it often lacked authenticity and neglected communicative competence. Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky 1962 (English translation): Emphasized interaction with others as crucial to learning. Views still influential in SLA approaches focusing on input & interaction. highlighted the importance of social interaction & cultural context in learning emphasizing the role of the environment in shaping language development. Challenged the individualistic views of earlier theories and paved the way for more interactive approaches to language learning. Summary: Pre-1960s: Language learning theories were mainly based on **Structuralism and Behaviorism**. Audiolingual Method: Emphasized repetition and habit formation in language teaching. Sociocultural Theory: Introduced the importance of interaction in learning, influencing modern Second Language Acquisition (SLA) approaches. Shift in Theory: The era marked a transition from structural and behavioral approaches to holistic & interactive methods in language learning. Linguistic Perspectives on SLA:  Since 1960, SLA has been studied from both internal and external linguistic perspectives. Internal focus: (Linguistic competence) Noam Chomsky's work revolutionized linguistic theory, emphasizing linguistic competence over surface forms. External focus: (Language use) Internal Focus: Aims to understand speakers' underlying knowledge of language (linguistic competence) rather than surface forms. Mental Representation: Focuses on the mental representation of language and the mechanisms behind language production and comprehension. Shift in Perspective: Moves away from surface-level descriptions towards examining the underlying mental processes involved in language acquisition and production. Chomsky's Theory: Introduces transformational-generative grammar as a foundational theory in this area. Transformational-Generative Grammar: Chomsky's Argument: Opposed behaviorist theories, emphasizing the creative aspects of language acquisition and children's innate capacity. Transformational-Generative Grammar: Proposes that all human languages share a **universal grammar** and that linguistic competence is biologically endowed. Shift in Focus: Chomsky's critique of behaviorism redirected attention to the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition. Principles and Parameters Model: Refinement of Innate Capacity: Chomsky's later frameworks emphasized universal principles and constraints as part of Universal Grammar. Principles and Parameters Model: Suggests that languages vary based on a set of universal principles and language-specific parameters. Minimalist Program: Advocates for simplicity and economy in linguistic representations. Evolution of Chomskyan Theory: Developed from transformational-generative grammar to more refined models, enhancing the understanding of innate capacity and focusing on universal principles and constraints in language acquisition. Minimalist Program: adds distinctions between lexical & functional category development more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge. Linguistic Interfaces: may pose challenges for L2 learners, contributing to developmental delays & interference bet languages. Understanding these interfaces is crucial for understanding the complexities of language acquisition & production in multilingual contexts. External Focus on SLA: Linguistic frameworks emphasizing functionalism contribute to an external focus on SLA Functionalism: Emphasizes language as a system of communication and the information content of utterances. Contrast with Internal Focus: Functionalism contrasts with the internal focus of earlier discussed frameworks by focusing on language as a communication system. Origins: Rooted in the Prague School of Eastern Europe, functionalism drives this perspective. Approach to SLA: Sets the stage for understanding how these frameworks approach the study of SLA differently from Chomskyan frameworks. Psychological Perspectives on SLA: The study of SLA from a psychological perspective focuses on three main areas: languages & the brain learning processes learner differences. These perspectives offer insights into the neurological, cognitive, and affective aspects of language learning. Languages & the Brain: Neurolinguistics explores the location & representation of language in the brain. Lenneberg's critical period hypothesis suggests a neurological basis for language acquisition. Learning Processes:  Information Processing (IP) models of learning from cognitive psychology influence explanations of SLA. Connectionism: proposes learning as the strengthening of associations between stimuli and responses. Processability framework : extends IP concepts to teaching second languages. Analysis: Complexity in SLA: Twenty-first-century SLA research highlights the complexity and dynamic nature of learning systems. Dynamic, Nonlinear Systems: Emphasizes the importance of understanding the interaction of learning systems with context. Causality and Context: Traditional definitions of causality are questioned, stressing the significance of context in SLA. Learner Differences: Focus on why some learners are more successful than others in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Influencing Factors: Include emotional involvement, biological differences, and processing variations. Humanistic Psychology: Emphasizes affective factors such as attitude, motivation, and anxiety. Analysis: Exploration of Learner Differences: Highlights factors that influence individual learning outcomes. Role of Affective Factors: Discusses how emotional aspects, influenced by humanistic psychology, impact language learning. Biological & Processing Variations: Considers how these differences shape language learning success. Social perspectives on SLA intersect with linguistic & cognitive factors, emphasizing the importance of social context in language acquisition & use. Two main foci within the social perspective: microsocial macrosocial Microsocial Focus: examines language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts. Frameworks such as Variation Theory/ Accommodation Theory/ Sociocultural Theory: emphasize interaction as essential for language genesis. (interactionist frameworks) Interactionist framework: views interaction as central to language acquisition. Revitalized in the 1990s tied to Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory informed by socio-linguistic research. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC): emphasizes L2 production & interpretation within virtual communities. Provides insights into formal & functional goals of language use in online interactions. contributing to our understanding of language acquisition in digital environments. Macrosocial Focus: examines language acquisition & use in broader ecological contexts. Frameworks such as Ethnography of Communication/ Acculturation Theory/ Social Psychology offer insights into cultural/ political/ educational factors influencing SLA outcomes. (3) The Monitor Model proposed by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s was a significant theory in the field of (SLA) aimed to explain how language learners acquire & use a second language through two distinct processes (acquisition & learning) The key components of the Monitor Model: 1- Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Acquisition: language learners acquire language subconsciously through natural communication a process similar to how children learn their first language This acquired knowledge is internalized used for communication without conscious awareness of grammatical rules. Learning: involves conscious knowledge of language rules, often referred to as "knowing about" a language. This explicit knowledge is gained through formal instruction Is separate from acquired competence. Critique:  If learners develop their languages using 2 processes, this will be too much effort for the brain. It is not easy to know what is acquired and what is learnt. Neglect of the Role of Practice & Feedback 2- Natural Order Hypothesis: suggests that language elements/ rules are acquired in a predictable order (regardless of instructional intervention) The order is determined by the learner's acquired system and remains consistent across learners. Similar to first language acquisition, second language acquisition follows predictable sequences. Some language rules are easier to state but may not be the first to be acquired. Critique: He ignored individual variations. He only examined the English language. 3- Monitor Hypothesis: a construct central to the model is related to the distinction bet acquisition & learning. represents the learner's ability to edit / monitor their language output using learned knowledge. Second language users rely on what they have acquired when engaging in spontaneous communication. They may use learned rules as a monitor/ editor to make minor corrections in their language output. Krashen proposed three conditions for Monitor usage: -time -focus on form (accuracy) - knowing the rule. the Monitor may not always be activated even when these conditions are met. The Monitor is primarily used in language production to ensure correctness of utterances not effective in language comprehension. represented a shift away from behaviorist theories emphasized the importance of subconscious acquisition processes. some aspects of the model have been criticized for lack of empirical support played a significant role in shaping theoretical perspectives on SLA. Critique: No way to test the monitor Setting (where do I acquire & learn?) 4- Input Hypothesis: Language acquisition occurs through comprehensible input. Sufficient & understandable input leads to the automatic acquisition of necessary grammar.  Language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to language that is comprehensible & slightly above their current level (i + 1). i: the level of language already acquired + 1: language just beyond that level. Critique: What is i & +1? Overemphasis on receptive skills Neglecting the productive skills Neglecting feedback & correction 5- Affective Filter Hypothesis: Language input may not be effectively processed if the learner's affective filter is high (during conscious learning/ when individuals are inhibited) acts as a metaphorical barrier that can prevent language acquisition even with appropriate input. Factors such as anxiety/ negative attitudes/ boredom can filter out input, making it unavailable for acquisition. Critique: How will we measure this filter? Criticism of Krashen’s model: Impact of Krashen's Model: Despite criticism, Krashen's model influenced language teaching by advocating for a focus on comprehensible input over explicit grammar instruction. Krashen's Monitor Model has faced challenges and criticisms from other researchers & theorists: Some argue that his hypotheses are difficult to test empirically others disagree with his conclusions drawn from research. Krashen's ideas were influential during a transition period in second language teaching, shifting from structure-based approaches to meaning-focused approaches. Communicative language teaching: immersion/ content-based/ task-based approaches has been widely implemented since then. Krashen's comprehensible input hypothesis continues to be a source of ideas for SLA research. Classroom studies have shown that students can make progress through exposure to comprehensible input, but guided instruction may be necessary for further progress in certain language features. Insights from cognitive psychology also contribute to understanding why this may be the case. QUESTIONS for practice: L1: You taked my pen! ⦿ L2: No, I have two pen. ⦿ L1: It belong to me. The use of "taked" instead of "took" reflects a common linguistic error during the early stages of language development. L2s often produce irregular verbs in regular forms as they learn language rules & patterns. This is called ‘overgeneralization’. The use of “pen” instead of “pens” is called ‘simplification’. 1. A native Lao speaker declares ‘I have two son’. Instead of saying ‘sons.’ Lao does not mark plural on nouns, but relies on numbers, other quantifiers or context to convey plural meaning (interlanguage) 2. A native Italian speaker with a sore throat says ‘I do not have voice’. Instead of ‘I lost my voice,’ translating literally from the Italian expression non avere voce (not to have voice). (positive transfer) 3. A French speaker says ‘He reads always novels’ ( Il lit toujours des romans) Instead of ‘He always reads novels’ because of a difference between adverb placement rules in English and French. (negative transfer) A native Italian speaker says ‘that’s a good way to hold up it’ Instead of ‘hold it up’. (There are no separable verbs in Italian the pronoun ‘it’ ( lo) would go at the end of the infinitive ( tener )- tenerlo ). OVERGENERALIZATION OR SIMPLIFICATION Errors like "a cowboy go" and "three robbers who sees", while Learner 2 makes errors like "Santa Claus ride" and "they plays". **Overgeneralization** occurs when language learners apply a rule or pattern too broadly. For example, a child learning English might overgeneralize the past tense rule by saying "goed" instead of "went" because they are applying the regular past tense rule ("-ed") to an irregular verb. This is a common step in language learning and indicates that the learner is internalizing and experimenting with linguistic rules. **Simplification** refers to the process where learners use simplified language structures to communicate. This might involve using shorter sentences, basic vocabulary, and simpler grammatical structures to convey their messages. Simplification helps learners to communicate more effectively while they are still mastering the complexities of the language. However, it can also mean they might omit or simplify certain linguistic elements until they become more proficient. (4) The Psychology of SLA: Introduction: Learning processes & Language acquisition Information Processing (IP) Connectionism Complexity Theory. Information Processing (IP): views the mind as a computer-like system that processes information through a series of stages (encoding, storage/ retrieval) emphasizes how learners actively engage with stimuli from the environment & transform this information into mental representations. Dekayzer (cognitive psychology). Building up of knowledge (key word). Connectionism: a theoretical framework for understanding learning processes emphasizes an integrated approach that combines linguistic/ social/ psychological factors. focuses on how acquisition takes place within this framework highlighting the interconnectedness of various aspects of learning & cognition. Complexity Theory: another perspective on learning processes. integrates linguistic/ social/ psychological considerations addresses questions about stages/ sequences/ mechanisms of acquisition. Broca's area: The study of languages and their connection to the brain has a rich history dating back to the 19th c One of the pioneering figures in this field was Paul Pierre Broca, who in 1861 & 1865 identified a specific area in the left frontal lobe of the brain as being crucial for speech production. He observed that damage to this area in the left hemisphere was more likely to result in language loss (Broca’s aphasia) highlighting the specialized role of certain brain regions in language functions. Wernicke's area: 1874 critical area for language processing known This region (adjacent to the auditory processing cortex) plays a key role in language comprehension. Together, Broca's area and Wernicke's area , along with surrounding regions near the Sylvian fissure, form a network responsible for various aspects of language processing. Lateralization of Language Functions: Majority of individuals show language functions primarily located in the left hemisphere of the brain. Emergence & Maturation: Specialization begins to emerge in infancy and becomes more pronounced as the brain matures. Reduced Plasticity: As the brain matures, it becomes less able to reassign language functions to other areas in case of damage. Individual Variability: While there are exceptions, this pattern holds for most individuals. Lenneberg's Critical Period Hypothesis: proposed in 1967 suggests that children have a limited window of opportunity during which they can acquire their first language (L1) without significant difficulty, even in the event of brain damage to language areas. Beyond this critical period, which is characterized by heightened brain plasticity, acquiring language may become more challenging or even impossible. This hypothesis has implications not only for first language acquisition but also for SLA regarding the influence of age on language learning abilities. Aptitude & Learner Differences: considers affective factors: age/ sex/ individual differences in aptitude for language learning. questions about why some second language learners are more successful than others explores the potential impact of various factors on language acquisition outcomes. Lateralization and Brain Plasticity: Lateralization: the specialization of language functions in the two brain hemispheres, primarily in the left hemisphere. increased specialization as the brain matures and its reduced plasticity, leading to limited ability to assume functions of damaged areas beyond a certain age. the Critical Period Hypothesis by Lenneberg, emphasizing the importance of brain plasticity in childhood for language acquisition. How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? Answer:  There is no definitive answer regarding the independence of languages in multilingual speakers due to individual variation and complex factors. Ervin & Osgood's Three-Way Relationship Model: Coordinate bilingualism: refers to parallel linguistic systems Compound: refers to a fused / unified system Subordinate: refers to accessing one linguistic system through another. Examples & Contexts of Bilingualism Types: Coordinate : Rare individuals who learned languages in different contexts and cannot easily translate between them. Compound : Common in simultaneous bilingualism during early childhood (before age three), where languages are fused. Subordinate : Resulting from learning a second language (L2) through the medium of the first language (L1), as in grammar-translation approaches. (5) Social Contexts of SLA: Linguistic competence: Social Perspective on Linguistic Competence: Accounts for what is being acquired in any language intended for communicative purposes. Communicative Use: Emphasizes the acquisition of language skills necessary for effective communication. Communicative competence: Communicative Competence Definition: "What a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community" (Saville-Troike, 2003). Components of Communicative Competence: Knowledge of vocabulary, phonology, grammar, etc. Understanding when to speak or not, what to say to whom, and how to say it appropriately in different situations. Inclusion of Social and Cultural Knowledge: Involves the social and cultural knowledge necessary to use and interpret linguistic forms correctly. Language community:  a group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC): Virtual Language Communities: CMC creates virtual language communities Are provided by computers still integral to L2 learners' experiences. consist of learners (novices) in a common L2, with varying L1 identities & levels of L2 proficiency. Expert members, often teachers & native L2 speakers, play a role in observing and supporting novice members' language performance. Multilingualism: All members of CMC communities are multilingual to some degree, reflecting the diverse linguistic backgrounds of participants Functions of Language Use: Language use in CMC environments serves multiple functions, including metalinguistic tasks (using language to learn language) /expressing opinions/ sharing information/ collaborating on text construction/fostering solidarity among learners. Teachers use CMC to enhance learning experiences/ assess student progress/ adjust instructional focus & level. Forms of Language: oral/ written synchronous (real-time)/ asynchronous (delayed) interaction require colloquial/ formal varieties of TL Long-term language learning goals: travel business academic pursuits ( influence the linguistic variables employed in CMC.) Second Language (SL) Learning: SL: a language learned & used within a language community where it is spoken natively by a dominant group. SL learners: need the language for social, academic/ political/ economic participation within that community. Example: Spanish speakers in the USA learning English Turkish speakers in Germany learning German Koreans in China learning Chinese. Foreign Language (FL) Learning: occurs within the learner's native culture with limited opportunities to interact with native speakers of the FL unless they study abroad. learners typically do not have the need or opportunity to fully participate in the society of t heFL. Often, FL learning is driven by academic requirements rather than social necessity. Example: A student in France learning Spanish as part of their school curriculum. Auxiliary Language (AL) Learning: are learned for specific purposes (political/ technological functions) Its use is often restricted to particular social domains face-to-face interaction may be limited. commonly used in linguistically diverse settings where a common language code is needed for specific social functions. Example: A Thai speaker using English for international trade an Igbo speaker in Nigeria using English for political meetings a Chinese speaker using English for pan-Asian economic conferences. Microsocial factors: Variability in Learner Language: L2 learner language is highly variable. occurs due to changes in proficiency levels & social context. Regular and Predictable Patterns: Sociolinguistics has shown that what was once seen as irregular in language production follows regular patterns. Variable features are systematically used with similar meanings/ functions across speakers and contexts. Contextual Dimensions of Variation: Linguistic Contexts: Related to language form and function (phonological, morphological, and syntactic variations) Phonological Variability: The use of sounds like [ŋ] in "coming"/ [n] in "comin'" depends on the sounds following them (back /front consonants) & their position in a word/ phrase. Morphological Variability: The choice between "sewed" & "sewn" depends on the specific verb form used in the sentence. Syntactic Variability: The construction "That is a big book" vs. "That a big book" shows variation in syntax, where the presence of the copula "is" can vary. Psychological Contexts: Influenced by attention to language form, automaticity, & task demands Attention to Language Form: The level of focus on pronunciation/ grammatical correctness varies based on the communicative context, such as formal settings (e.g., classroom) vs. informal conversations. Automaticity vs. Control: In formal settings, speakers may be more conscious of using standard forms, while in casual contexts, they might use more colloquial/ simplified language. Microsocial Contexts: Features of setting, formality, participant relationships, & interaction types influencing language production and interpretation. Formality Level: The level of formality in interactions affects language form. ("hi" vs. "I am very pleased to meet you" reflects different levels of formality.) Relationship Dynamics: Interactions in public vs. intimate settings influence language choices & the level of attention paid to linguistic details. Attention to Language Form: The amount of attention given to language form varies based on the context, impacting the production of variable linguistic features. Macrosocial Factors: Larger social and political settings influence linguistic variation. societal attitudes/roles of users (e.g., immigrant, student)/ institutional organization. Developmental Continuum and Complexity Theory: Variation over time reflects developmental stages & intrinsic properties of dynamic systems. Interest from linguistic & psychological perspectives in understanding variability. Accommodation Theory: Speakers adjust their language to match their interlocutors. (Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simplify their language when they are talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the TL when they have different friends). Native speakers simplify language for L2 learners, leading to different language varieties. Impact of Macrosocial Contexts:  Different social roles and contexts lead to the acquisition of varied language forms. Workplace stratification influences language input & &group identities.