Semantics and Pragmatics PDF

WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS ➔ These are words that have little 1 Words, Meaning, Lexicon meaning and cannot stand alone by itself. It is supplemented by...

WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS ➔ These are words that have little 1 Words, Meaning, Lexicon meaning and cannot stand alone by itself. It is supplemented by content words when being Defining a Word expressed. ➔ They function as a bridge to Words are the fundamental units of connect two or more content language used to represent ideas, actions, words representing different objects, or relationships. ideas. ➔ It is fundamental because without words, language will lose its medium Meaning in Semantics for expression. ➔ It is a unit because it is only part of We know that, form + meaning = word, and the whole structure of language. that these forms can be written, spoken, or ➔ It made the representation of ideas signed. But what kind of meaning are we possible because it takes on a form; dealing with? spoken, written, or signed. Every form has an associated meaning. Meaning in Semantics: ➔ Small units can be combined ➔ As established, word forms together to form bigger units of represent ideas, actions, objects, or ideas–This is why words are relationships—all of which are considered building blocks for derived from reality. communication. ➔ This meaning is influenced by various factors such as context, speaker intention, and cultural Types of Words background. ➔ Context: As words can be combined Words can be broadly categorized based on to express bigger ideas, the meaning the meaning they carry. of an individual word transforms based on the other words that 1. Content Words supplements it. For example, “suit” ➔ These are words that carry can mean attire, and “case” is a substantial meaning. The ideas broad category to refer to a bag. Yet they represent are complete, when combined together, say hence, it can be understood “suitcase,” it can refer to a specific without being supplemented by kind of bag used for travelling. other words. ➔ Speaker Intention: It dictates how 2. Function Words the word will be said. ➔ Cultural Background: Reality is shaped by culture. The ideas being  WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS expressed in language are Types of Lexical Meaning dependent on that culture, likewise, the comprehension of specific words depend on an understanding 1. Denotative of a particular culture. ➔ The literal meaning of a word. It is context-independent. Lexicon 2. Connotative ➔ The non-literal meaning of a The lexicon is a mental dictionary of a word; evokes emotional or speaker. When acquiring a language, cultural association. information about that language goes into the lexicon. This information is specifically 3. Social pertained to as lexemes and can be ➔ Words that indicate the social categorized through different levels of identity of a speaker, or the linguistic structures. relationship between speaker and listener. Components of a Lexical Entry: The Lexemes 4. Affective ➔ Emotions, attitudes, or feelings 1. Phonological Information related to a word being said. ➔ How a word is pronounced 2. Morphological Information 2 Sense and Reference ➔ How words are internally structured, and how certain changes in structure/form can Reference change its grammatical function. How does language relate to meaning? For 3. Syntactic Information language to connect with the world, there ➔ How words assume a must be referents which a word or any grammatical role, and are linguistic expression may associate with. sequenced together according to These referents differ since the world is that role. diverse, hence, how they are expressed also differ. The relationship between the 4. Semantic Information linguistic expression and the referent can be ➔ How the meaning is associated expressed as: linguistic expression + with a word (lexical-level) or referents = reference. series of words (syntactic-level) Types of Reference Referential Expressions  WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS These are linguistic elements used to What is Sense identify entities in the world. It can take various forms, some of which are: Sense is the particular way in which referents are conceived. Linguistic 1. Proper Nouns expressions based on sense are ➔ Refers to specific individuals or conceived from how an individual or a places. group of people perceived or conceptualized it. Sense may have 2. Pronouns ➔ Refers back to previously referents, but is independent from it. mentioned or easily identifiable Sense assumes that a referent or entities. abstract idea is multifaceted and can be expressed differently. 3. Definite Descriptions ➔ Phrases that uniquely identify an For example: entity within a context. Referent/Entity: Kuroo Tetsurou 4. Indefinite Descriptions Reference: Proper Noun; A specific ➔ Phrases that refer to any member individual of a class of entities, without Sense: Nekoma’s Middle Blocker, specifying which one. Volleyball Captain, Husbando ni Kryoni Challenges in Reference Challenges in Identifying Sense 1. Non-Referential Expressions 1. Ambiguity and Vagueness ➔ Some linguistic elements do not ➔ Words are not clearly defined. denote any objects in the real world. For example, function 2. Too Abstract words such as conjunctions or ➔ Abstract concepts are difficult to particles. define due to lack of concrete referents. 2. Empty Reference ➔ Some expressions whose 3. Idioms and Fixed Expressions referents do not exist in reality. ➔ The ideas associated with these expressions function as a whole, 3. Ambiguity and Vagueness and are most often abstract, ➔ When a word or phrase refers to hence, one cannot sense what it more than one meaning. means from individual words.  WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS are intermediate terms with 3 Lexical Relations varying degrees of similarity to the two words. Synonymy For example: ➔ Hot-(Warm-Tepid-Cool)-Cold These are words that may differ in form and pronunciation, but are related because they 3. Reverses have the same meaning. Exact synonyms, ➔ Two terms which describe however, are rare and most often, there’s a opposite movements: up & down, certain degree of difference. left & right, in & out, fill & empty. For example, an idea–let’s say “die’ –can be 4. Converses/Relational linguistically expressed based on: ➔ Two terms which describe two entities from alternate Dictionary meaning: decease, pass away viewpoints. Slang: check out, croak, kick off Idioms: bite the dust, kick the bucket 5. Taxonomic Sisters ➔ There’s a hierarchical relationship among words. It Antonymy assumes that a series of words can be classified systematically. Traditionally, antonymy is termed as ➔ Taxonomic terms can either be words which are opposite in meaning. closed or open. Closed in a sense that a term cannot be easily Types of Antonymy changed unless there is a change in a system. Open if a particular 1. Complementary system is open to new elements. ➔ A relation between two words where the negative of one implies the positive of another. The Hyponymy words form a two-term classification. Words whose relation is that of inclusion. A general term called superordinate (or 2. Gradable hypernym or hyperonym) is conceived to ➔ A relation between words (not account for all individual terms that have just two, where the positive of similarity. Hyponyms also adopt a one term does not necessarily taxonomic system. imply the negative of the other. ➔ It sort of assumes that two ideas form a spectrum, and in-between  WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS Member-Collection Relationship between the word for a unit and the usual word for a collection of the units. (Ex. bird-flock, tree-forest, human-crowd) Member-Mass In the taxonomy above, we can distinguish Relationship between a mass noun (a noun that: which can be measurement) and the usual unit of measurement or division. (Ex. sheet ➔ The hyponym of hammer, saw, of paper, strand of hair, drop of liquid) chisel, etc. is “tool.” Likewise, the hyponym of hacksaw, jigsaw, etc. is 4 Lexicological Distinctions “saw.” ➔ The elements/terms one-degree under a hyponym are taxonomic Monosemy sisters and adopt a horizontal relationship. A word that has a single meaning. ➔ The transition of hyponyms to the individual elements under it assumes a vertical relationship. Homonymy Meronymy Homonyms are unrelated senses of the same phonological word. Meaning, same pronunciation/sounds but different in Words which describe a part-whole meaning. It can be distinguished as: relationship between lexical items. Like hyponyms, it adopts the taxonomic system Homographs - same spelling, different where the whole term (not general) is meaning or pronunciation referred to as a holonym. Homophones - same sound, different meaning or spelling Conditions of Homonymy 1. Same syntactic category, same spelling 2. Same syntactic category, different spelling  WORD MEANING: LEXICAL SEMANTICS 3. Different syntactic category, same 1. Componential Analysis spelling ➔ A method of analysis of word 4. Same syntactic category, same spelling meaning by identifying a set of binary features that can Polysemy differentiate words. ➔ Often used in anthropological Polysemy also deals with multiple senses of linguistics to analyze kinship ties. the same phonological word (pare-parehong pronunciation but different meaning) like 2. Predictive Analysis ➔ Uses logical formulas to Homonyms. represent meaning, decomposing complex words into simpler ➔ In Polysemy, however, these senses or action/states. pronunciation are judged to be ➔ Ex. Cause + Die = Kill related, hence they are listed under the same lexical entry, 3. Prototype Theory ➔ Homonyms, on the other hand, terms ➔ Assumes that there is a primary are said to be distinct therefore they term (the prototype) that best are listed under separate entries. represents the entirety of an idea ➔ Lexicographers use the criteria of or entity. Within the prototype “relatedness” to identify polysemy model, this term is at the center, which includes: speakers’ intuitions, and other terms outside of it and historical development of items. share its characteristics. The farther the term is from the Problems with this criteria: prototype term, the less similar ➔ Not always clear-cut. Historical facts the characteristics. and speaker intuitions may contradict each other. 4 Lexical Decomposition A process which involves breaking down the meaning of words into smaller components. These smaller components are what is often called “semantic features” or “primitives.” Approaches to Lexical Decomposition