Second Year CC Course Syllabus.docx.pdf

Second Year CC Course Syllabus Unit 1 – Indian Heritage India is a country with a diverse culture. India’s culture refers to a group of small distinct civilizations. Clothing, festivals, languages, religions, music, dance, architecture,...

Second Year CC Course Syllabus Unit 1 – Indian Heritage India is a country with a diverse culture. India’s culture refers to a group of small distinct civilizations. Clothing, festivals, languages, religions, music, dance, architecture, food, and art are all part of Indian culture. Most notably, various foreign civilizations have affected Indian culture throughout its history. Furthermore, the history of Indian culture spans millennia. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism are all religions. These religions are all founded on karma and dharma. These four are also known as Indian faiths. Along with Abrahamic religions, Indian religions constitute a major group of world religions. India’s cultural heritage is not only one of the most ancient but it is also one of the most extensive and varied. From ancient times to the present many races and religions came here and left their imprints on the culture. These people either came into contact with India temporarily or permanently settled within her borders to evolve a distinctive Indian culture. This resulted in a synthesis of many cultures. With the result India, due to its rich and precious Cultural and Natural heritages, came to be known as the land of great wonders and diversities. The Culture of India refers to the way of life of the people of India. India’s languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs differ from place to place within the country. The Indian culture is often labelled as an amalgamation of several segments of cultures, including traditions that are several millennia old. It spans across the entire Indian sub-continent. Many elements of India’s diverse cultural segments have had a profound impact across the world. In its collective form these cultural traits are identified as Indian cultural heritage. It is interesting to note that in the 10th century the Arabs described Indian culture as Ajaib-ul-Hind. The literal meaning of Ajaib-ul-Hind is ‘Incredible India.’ Do you know that these traditions and traditional life styles are inherited from our rich past? What we inherited from our predecessors is known as heritage. Thus heritage encompasses the history and ideas of people of that country, there values and beliefs, monuments, sites of important past events such as battle of Panipat and the battle of HaldiGhati, which are historically famous. Besides, in the category of heritage we can include arts such as dance, music (shastriyasangeet). Being an oriental ancient civilization, India has a history that is 5000 years old and its culture which is extensive, profound and unique. All this has made immense contribution to the world progress and civilization. In this lesson we shall identify the major characteristic of Indian culture In addition, numerous foreign religions are practised in India. Abrahamic religions are among these foreign religions. In India, the Abrahamic religions are unquestionably Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Other foreign religions in India include Zoroastrianism and the Bahá’ Faith, in addition to Abrahamic religions. As a result of the presence of so many different religions, Indian society has embraced tolerance and secularism. 1 Indian culture is dominated by the joint family arrangement. The most notable family members are parents, children, children’s spouses, and offspring. These family members all live together. Furthermore, the eldest male member is the family’s head. In Indian culture, arranged weddings are the norm. Most Indians’ weddings are most likely planned by their parents. Almost all Indian marriages include dowry from the bride’s family. Weddings are unquestionably joyous occasions in Indian culture. Indian weddings include eye-catching décor, clothes, music, dance, and customs. Most notably, divorce rates in India are quite low. There are numerous festivals in India. Because of the multi-religious and multi-cultural nature of Indian civilization, these festivals are extremely diverse. Indians place a high significance on celebratory occasions. Above all, regardless of disagreements, the entire country shares in the celebrations. MEANING AND CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND HERITAGE The word ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning tilling, or cultivating, refining and worship. Summing up, it means cultivating and refining a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our admiration and respect. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak, the God you worship, all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that it is the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also the things that we have inherited as members of society. All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various issues of life. Culture thus refits to a human-made environment which includes all the material and non-material products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. It may be seen in our literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment. Culture has two distinctive components, namely, material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food and household goods. Non-material culture refers to ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief. Culture varies from place to place and country to country. Its development is based on the historical process operating in a local, regional or national context. For example, we differ in our ways of greeting others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and practices from the West. In other words, the people of any country are characterised by their distinctive cultural traditions. Cultural development is a historical process. We have learnt many things from our ancestors. As time goes, we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings from 2 their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected and maintained by them with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it. A few examples would be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal, Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s QutubMinar, Mysore Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) NizamuddinAulia’sDargah, Golden Temple of Amritsar, GurudwaraSisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India Gate etc., are all important places of our heritage and are to be protected by all means. Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are a part of heritage. In Indian context, the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in the field of Medicines and Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of Indian Cultural heritage. Culture is liable to change, but our heritage does not. We individuals, belonging to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits of other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural heritage will remain unchanged. Our Indian cultural heritage will bind us together e.g. Indian literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads, Gita and Yoga System etc. have contributed a lot by way of providing right knowledge, right action, behavior and practices as complementary to the development of civilization. Heritage Heritage refers to what we acquire from our forefathers and mothers. India is a country with many different cultures and traditions. Our country is home to people of many castes, faiths, and creeds. Each ethnic group in our country has its own genesis story, as well as its own set of traditions and culture. They have all made their mark on Indian history and culture. Nature has carved out a separate geographical entity in India. Our traditions teach us how to develop healthy habits and become better people. Thus, our cultural history is a great gift from our elders that will help us become better people and develop a harmonious community. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designates World Heritage Sites of outstanding universal value to cultural or natural heritage which have been nominated by countries which are signatories to the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites (including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty, are defined as natural heritage. India accepted the convention on 14 November 1977, making its sites eligible for inclusion on the list. 3 There are 43 World Heritage Sites in India. Out of these, 35 are cultural, seven are natural, and one, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type, listed for both cultural and natural properties. India has the sixth-most sites worldwide. The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee. The most recent site listed is the Moidams – the Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty, in 2024. At different times, two sites were listed as endangered: the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary was listed between 1992 and 2011 due to poaching and the activities of Bodo militias, and the monuments at Hampi were listed between 1999 and 2006 due to risks from increased traffic and new constructions in surroundings. One site is transnational: The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier is shared with six other countries. In addition, India has 56 sites on its tentative list. 1. Ajanta Caves (1893) The caves at Ajanta represent a collection of Buddhist art from two periods. The first monuments date to the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE and were created by the followers of Theravada Buddhism. Further monuments were added in the 5th and 6th centuries CE, during the Vakataka dynasty, by the followers of Mahayana Buddhism. The monuments are masterpieces of Buddhist art and exerted strong artistic influence in India and the broader region, especially in Java. 2. Ellora Caves (1893) 4 The Ellora Caves comprise 34 temples and monasteries that were cut into a 2 km (1.2 mi) long basalt cliff between the 7th and 11th centuries. As they were built by followers of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, they illustrate the religious tolerance of the period when they were constructed. The largest temple is the Kailasa Temple (pictured), which is elaborately decorated with sculptures and paintings. 3. Agra Fort Agra Fort is a 16th-century Mughal imperial fortress in Agra. It got its present layout under the Emperor Akbar. The complex contains several palaces (Jahangiri Mahal pictured), audience halls, and two mosques. Stylistically, it is one of the high points of Indo-Islamic architecture, with influences of Persian and Timurid architecture. 4. Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal is considered the finest example of Indo-Islamic architecture located in Uttar Pradesh listed in 1983. It was built in Agra on the bank of the Yamuna river as a mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal, the Persian wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, between 1631 and 1648. It was designed by Ustad Ahmad Lahori and built in white marble inlaid with precious and semi-precious stones. The tomb is surrounded by four free-standing minarets. The complex also includes the main gate, a mosque, a guesthouse, and surrounding gardens. 5 5. Sun Temple This Hindu temple was built in the 13th century and is one of the finest examples of Kalinga architecture in Odisha. It represents the chariot of the solar deity Surya: on the outer sides, it has 24 wheels carved of stone and richly decorated, being pulled by six horses. Other decorative motifs include lions, musicians, dancers, and erotic scenes. 6. Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram The monuments around the town of Mamallapuram were built in the 7th and 8th centuries, under the Pallava dynasty. There are different types of monuments: the rathas, which are chariot-shaped temples (DharmarajaRatha); the mandapas (rock-cut temples); rock reliefs, including the giant Descent of the Ganges; Shore Temple (pictured) and other temples and archaeological remains. The artistic expression of the monuments was influential in the broader region, including Cambodia, Vietnam, and Java. 7. Kaziranga National Park 6 Kaziranga is located in the floodplains of the Brahmaputra River. It is one of the best wildlife sanctuaries in the world, home to the world's largest population of the Indian rhinoceros (pictured), as well as tigers, Asian elephants, wild water buffalo, and the Ganges river dolphin. The wetlands are important for migratory bird species. 8. Manas River and Wild life Century The sanctuary along the Manas River covers grasslands on floodplains and forests, both in lowlands and in hills. It is located in Assam. The area is a biodiversity hotspot and home to several endangered species, including the Indian rhinoceros, Asian elephant (pictured), wild water buffalo, tiger, sloth bear, pygmy hog, Gee's golden langur, and Bengal florican. The forests are constantly being renewed after floods and changes in the river courses. Between 1992 and 2011, the site was listed as endangered due to poaching and the activities of Bodo militias. 10. Group of Monuments at Hampi 7 Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire until its abandonment after its sacking and pillaging by the Deccan sultanates in 1565. For about 200 years, it was a prosperous multi-cultural city that left several monuments in the Dravidian style as well as the Indo-Islamic style. The remains include religious and secular buildings and defensive structures. The Vitthala Temple is pictured. A minor boundary modification of the site took place in 2012. Between 1999 and 2006, the site was listed as endangered due to risks posed by increased traffic and new constructions. 9. Group of Monuments at Pattadakal This site comprises nine Hindu temples and one Jain temple that were built in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty. Pattadakal is situated in Karnataka. They were constructed in the BadamiChalukya style that blends influences from northern and southern India. 8  Unit 1I – Indian festivals India's festivals showcase its rich diversity and cultural heritage, celebrated with enthusiasm through rituals, decorations, and social gatherings. Notable festivals include: 1. Diwali (October/November) - The Festival of Lights honoring Lord Rama's return and the victory of good, marked by lighting oil lamps and exchanging sweets. 2. Holi (March) - Celebrating spring and the triumph of good over evil, characterized by throwing colored powders and joyful singing and dancing. 3. Eid al-Fitr (Varies) - Marks the end of Ramadan, observed with prayers, almsgiving, and feasting with loved ones. 4. Christmas (December 25) - Commemorates Jesus Christ's birth with decorations, midnight masses, and gift-giving. 5. Navratri and Durga Puja (September/October) - Honoring Goddess Durga, featuring fasting, dance, and grand puja celebrations. 6. Ganesh Chaturthi (August/September) - Celebrates Lord Ganesha's birth with idol installations and prayers. 7. Pongal (January) - A Tamil harvest festival celebrating the new rice with traditional dances. 8. Raksha Bandhan (August) - Strengthens the bond between siblings through the tying of rakhi. 9. Baisakhi (April) - Punjab's harvest festival and Sikh New Year, featuring dance and community events. 10. Onam (August/September) - Celebrates King Mahabali's return with floral decorations and boat races. 11. Makar Sankranti (January) - Marks the sun's transit into Capricorn with kite flying and rituals. 12. Janmashtami (August) - Celebrates Lord Krishna's birth with fasting and devotional activities. These festivals promote unity and reflect India's cultural richness. 1. KumbhaMela- One of the largest human congregations in the world, KumbhMela is one festival that you should definitely be a part of at least once in a lifetime. The 9  festival of the Pot of Nectar of Immortality is held every 3 years in four sacred pilgrim centres in India – Prayag in Uttar Pradesh, Haridwar in Uttarakhand, Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh and Nasik in Maharashtra. Pilgrims from around the world gather together on one of these pilgrim centres on certain auspicious days of the year and bathe in the sacred river to gain immortality and wisdom. Get up, close and personal with radiant saints and yogis of Himalayas, and watch them parade and bathe. 2. Temple festivals of Kerala- Treat your senses to the extravagance and ecstasy of Kerala’s temple festivals, beginning in the month of February and continuing till April. The key highlight of the festival is an elaborate and majestic procession of elephants that marks the beginning of any ritual. Among the temple festivals of Kerala, ThrissurPooram is one of the most popular, held during April/May. Witness scores of elephants, beautifully adorned, standing still in a procession as drummers create a blissful orchestra of sound and music. ArattupuzhaPooram is another major festival and the most emphatic of all in India. 3. Durga puja- DurgaPooja or Durga Puja is the biggest festival of the Bengalis (a term loosely used to refer to both people who live in West Bengal state as well as to those who live elsewhere but speak Bengali language ) and perhaps the finest mix of traditions, colours, vibrancy and spirituality. It is believed that no other festival in India exudes such high spirit, diversity and extravagance as Durga Puja. It is inarguably one of the top 5 festivals of India for foreign visitors. Kolkata in West Bengal is the ultimate place to be a part of this grand festival that commemorates the power of Goddess Durga, representing divine energy. It is a conglomeration of culture and arts that come alive in its pandals, idols of Goddess Durga and much more. Pandal hopping, food, new dresses, adda are the best ways to celebrate DurgaPooja. You may experience DurgaPooja festivities if you are in Delhi at Chittaranjan Park area of South Delhi. 4. Hemis festival- The Hemis Festival is one of the most famous and biggest religious festivals, celebrated with immense pomp and grandeur in Ladakh every year. The colourful festival is celebrated for two days and falls on the 10th day of the Tibetan lunar month. It commemorates the birth anniversary of Lord Padmasambhava (Guru Rimpoche), the founder of Tibet Tantric Buddhism. The festival is celebrated at the courtyard of HemisGompa, the biggest Buddhist monastery in Ladakh. The Mask Dances are the primary attraction of the festival and is considered a part of Buddhist tantric addition. 10 5. Jaisalmer Dessert festival - Jaisalmer isn’t all about rugged desert beauty and sandstone forts and palaces. It is acclaimed globally for its annual Jaisalmer Desert Festival that allures travellers from across the world. With enthralling events such as turban tying, camel racing, firework display, Mr. Desert and Miss Moomal competitions, and the longest moustache competition, the grand Indian festival emphasises the cultural heritage and rich traditions of Rajasthan. The 3-day extravaganza is a must-see on your tour of India, highlighting a myriad colours, expressions and ethnicity. 6. RathYatra, Puri - RathYatra, or the Chariot Festival, is one of the most remarkable festivals of India that showcase exceptional fanfare and grandeur. The festival is celebrated every year in Puri, Odisha, during the months of June or July. The world famous religious festival attracts over one millions pilgrims from around the world. The Jagannath Temple in Puri is one of the most sacred temples in India. During this festival, the beautifully decked idols of the three deities of the temple – Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra and Goddess Subhadra – are taken to the streets in a grand procession. Chariot pulling is the most exciting part of the occasion and is also considered most sacred. 7. Urs ,Ajmer- The annual Urs festival is held at Ajmer in Rajasthan and commemorates the death anniversary of renowned Sufi saint MoinuddinChisti. The festival is held for 6 days and the last day is considered most auspicious and special. There are many customs and traditions related to this prestigious Muslim festival that attracts thousands of devotees from all over the country and abroad. It is celebrated in Mazaar Sharif, the famous dargah in Rajasthan. The night-long qawwali songs are one of the biggest attractions of this festival. 8. SindhuDarshana festival -The festival, held in Ladakh on full moon day (Guru Purnima) in month of June, is a commemoration of River Sindhu or the Indus. River Sindhu is an icon of unity and communal harmony in India. Through this festival, millions of pilgrims pay honour to the holy river. The occasion is also a symbolic tribute to the soldiers of India who endanger their lives to protect ours. During this festival, various cultural groups from around the country bring water from other prominent rivers in earthen pots and immerse these in River Sindhu as a mark of communal harmony and peace. 9. The DevDeepawali, Varanasi -The DevDeepawali, or the Diwali of the Gods, is celebrated in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, just fifteen days after Diwali. It falls on full moon in the month of Kartika, or November to December. It is this time of the year that the City of Temples comes alive with immense fervour and zeal, and seems like 11  a true abode of the Gods. The sight of exquisitely bedecked ghats of River Ganga and the evening Ganga Aarti is a spectacle to behold forever. It is truly a celestial manifestation of spirituality, lights and vigour. 10. Hornbill festival, Nagaland- The world famous Hornbill Festival is celebrated in Nagaland every year with immense gusto and fervour. The cultural carnival is named after Hornbill, a globally acclaimed bird which is also displayed in Nagaland’s tribal folklores. It is truly a stupendous manifestation of cultural displays and traditional extravaganza of the state. The key highlights of the festival are colourful tribal dance and music, traditional arts and sculptures, Naga Morungs Exhibitions, traditional archery, musical concert, cultural medley of various tribes and Naga wrestling. 12  Second Year CC Course Syllabus Semester- IV Unit 1 – Indian Cinema The Cinema of India, consisting of motion pictures made by the Indian film industry, has had a large effect on world cinema since the second half of the 20th century. Indian cinema is made up of various film industries, each producing films in different languages, including Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, Bhojpuri and others. Major centres of film production across the country include Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata, Kochi, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar-Cuttack, and Guwahati.For a number of years, the Indian film industry has ranked first in the world in terms of annual film output. In 2022, Indian cinema earned ₹15,000 crore ($1.9 billion) at the box-office. Ramoji Film City located in Hyderabad is certified by the Guinness World Records as the largest film studio. complex in the world measuring over 1,666 acres Indian cinema is composed of multilingual and multi-ethnic film art. The term 'Bollywood', often mistakenly used to refer to Indian cinema as a whole, is only the Hindi-language segment, with Indian cinema being an umbrella term that includes various film industries, each offering films in diverse languages and styles. In 2021, Telugu cinema emerged as the largest film industry in India in terms of box office.In 2022, Hindi cinema represented 33% of box office revenue, followed by Telugu representing 20%, Tamil representing 16%, Kannada representing 8%, and Malayalam representing 6%.Other prominent film industries are Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, Bhojpuri, and Odia cinema. As of 2022, the combined revenue of South Indian film industries has surpassed that of the Mumbai-based Hindi-language film industry (Bollywood). As of 2022, Telugu cinema leads Indian cinema with 23.3 crore (233 million) tickets sold, followed by Tamil cinema with 20.5 crore (205 million) and Hindi cinema with 18.9 crore (189 million). Indian cinema is a global enterprise,and its films have attracted international attention and acclaim throughout South Asia.Since talkies began in 1931, Hindi cinema has led in terms of box office performance, but in recent years it has faced stiff competition from Telugu cinema.Overseas Indians account for 12% of the industry's revenue. Silent era (1890s–1920s) In 1897, a film presentation by filmmaker Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's camera and encouragement, Indian photographer Hiralal Sen filmed scenes from that show, exhibited as The Flower of Persia (1898). The Wrestlers (1899), by H. S. Bhatavdekar, showing a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay, was the first film to be shot by an Indian and the first Indian 13 documentary film.From 1913 to 1931, all the movies made in India were silent films, which had no sound and had intertitles. In 1913, Dadasaheb Phalke released Raja Harishchandra (1913) in Bombay, the first film made in India. It was a silent film incorporating Marathi and English intertitles. It premiered in Coronation cinema in Girgaon. Although some claim Shree Pundalik of Dadasaheb Torne is the first ever film made in India. Some film scholars have argued that Pundalik was not a true Indian film because it was simply a recording of a stage play, filmed by a British cameraman and it was processed in London. Raja Harishchandra of Phalke had a story based on Hindu Sanskrit legend of Harishchandra, a truthful King and its success led many to consider him a pioneer of Indian cinema. Phalke used an all Indian crew including actors Anna Salunke and D. D. Dabke. He directed, edited, and processed the film himself. Phalke saw The Life of Christ (1906) by the French director Alice Guy-Blaché, While watching Jesus on the screen, Phalke envisioned Hindu deities Rama and Krishna instead and decided to start in the business of "moving pictures". In South India, film pioneer Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu, credited as the father of Telugu cinema, built the first cinemas in Madras (now Chennai), and a film studio was established in the city by Nataraja Mudaliar. In 1921, Naidu produced the silent film, Bhishma Pratigna, generally considered to be the first Telugu feature film. The first Tamil and Malayalam films, also silent films, were Keechaka Vadham (1917–1918, R. Nataraja Mudaliar) and Vigathakumaran (1928, J. C. Daniel Nadar). The latter was the first Indian social drama film and featured the first Dalit-caste film actress. The first chain of Indian cinemas, Madan Theatre, was owned by Parsi entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan, who oversaw the production and distribution of films for the chain.These included film adaptations from Bengal's popular literature and Satyawadi Raja Harishchandra (1917), a remake of Phalke's influential film. Films steadily gained popularity across India as affordable entertainment for the masses (admission as low as an anna [one-sixteenth of a rupee] in Bombay). Young producers began to incorporate elements of Indian social life and culture into cinema, others brought new ideas from across the world. Global audiences and markets soon became aware of India's film industry. In 1927, the British government, to promote the market in India for British films over American ones, formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee. The ICC consisted of three British and three Indians, led by T. Rangachari, a Madras lawyer. This committee failed to bolster the desired recommendations of supporting British Film, instead recommending support for the fledgling Indian film industry, and their suggestions were set aside. Sound era 14 The first Indian sound film was Alam Ara (1931) made by Ardeshir Irani.Ayodhyecha Raja (1932) was the first sound film of Marathi cinema. Irani also produced South India's first sound film, the Tamil–Telugu bilingual talking picture Kalidas (1931, H. M. Reddy). The first Telugu film with audible dialogue, Bhakta Prahlada (1932), was directed by H. M. Reddy, who directed the first bilingual (Telugu and Tamil) talkie Kalidas (1931).East India Film Company produced its first Telugu film, Savitri (1933, C. Pullayya), adapted from a stage play by Mylavaram Bala Bharathi Samajam. The film received an honorary diploma at the 2nd Venice International Film Festival. Chittoor Nagayya was one of the first multilingual filmmakers in India.. Jumai Shasthi was the first Bengali short film as a talkie Jyoti Prasad Agarwala made his first film Joymoti (1935) in Assamese, and later made Indramalati.The first film studio in South India, Durga Cinetone, was built in 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh.The advent of sound to Indian cinema launched musicals such as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani, marking the beginning of song-and-dance in Indian films. By 1935, studios emerged in major cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay as filmmaking became an established industry, exemplified by the success of Devdas (1935).The first colour film made in India was Kisan Kanya (1937, Moti B).Viswa Mohini (1940) was the first Indian film to depict the Indian movie-making world. Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "tent cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land to screen films. The first of its kind was in Madras and called Edison's Grand Cinema Megaphone. This was due to the fact that electric carbons were used for motion picture projectors. Bombay Talkies opened in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune began production of Marathi films. Sant Tukaram (1936) was the first Indian film to be screened at an international film festival,at the 1937 edition of the Venice Film Festival. The film was judged one of the three best films of the year. However, while Indian filmmakers sought to tell important stories, the British Raj banned Wrath (1930) and Raithu Bidda (1938) for broaching the subject of the Indian independence movement. The Indian Masala film—a term used for mixed-genre films that combined song, dance, romance, etc.—arose following the Second World War. During the 1940s, cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls, and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival. The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination, began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s. IPTA plays, such as Nabanna (1944), prepared the ground for realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth, 1946). The IPTA movement continued to emphasise realism in films Mother India (1957) and Pyaasa (1957), among India's most recognisable cinematic productions. Following independence, the 1947 partition of India divided the nation's assets and a number of studios moved to Pakistan. Partition became an enduring film subject thereafter. 15 The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1948, which eventually became one of the world's largest documentary film producers with an annual production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with 9,000 prints for permanent film theatres across the country. Golden Age (late 1940s–1960s) Satyajit Ray is recognised as one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century. The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Indian cinema.This period saw the emergence of the Parallel Cinema movement, which emphasised social realism. Mainly led by Bengalis, early examples include Dharti Ke Lal (1946, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas), Neecha Nagar (1946, Chetan Anand), Nagarik (1952, Ritwik Ghatak) and Do Bigha Zamin (1953, Bimal Roy), laying the. foundations for Indian neorealism The Apu Trilogy (1955–1959, Satyajit Ray) won prizes at several major international film festivals and firmly established the Parallel Cinema movement. It was influential on world cinema and led to a rush of coming-of-age films in art house theatres. Cinematographer Subrata Mitra developed the technique of bounce lighting, to recreate the effect of daylight on sets, during the second film of the trilogy and later pioneered other effects such as the photo-negative flashbacks and X-ray digressions. During the 1950s, Indian cinema reportedly became the world's second largest film industry, earning a gross annual income of ₹250 million (equivalent to ₹26 billion or US$320 million in 2023) in 1953. The government created the Film Finance Corporation (FFC) in 1960 to provide financial support to filmmakers. While serving as Information and 16 Broadcasting Minister of India in the 1960s, Indira Gandhi supported the production of off-beat cinema through the FFC. Baburao Patel of Filmindia called B. N. Reddy's Malliswari (1951) an "inspiring motion picture" which would "save us the blush when compared with the best of motion pictures of the world". Film historian Randor Guy called Malliswari scripted by Devulapalli Krishnasastri a "poem in celluloid, told with rare artistic finesse, which lingers long in the memory". Commercial Hindi cinema began thriving, including acclaimed films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959, Guru Dutt) Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955, Raj Kapoor). These films expressed social themes mainly dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented Bombay as both a nightmare and a dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life. Epic film Mother India (1957, Mehboob Khan) was the first Indian film to be nominated for the US-based Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' Academy Award for Best [citation needed] Foreign Language Film and defined the conventions of Hindi cinema for decades. It spawned a new genre of dacoit films. Gunga Jumna (1961, Dilip Kumar) was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law, a theme that became common in Indian films in the 1970s. Madhumati (1958, Bimal Roy) popularised the theme of reincarnation in Western popular culture. Actor Dilip Kumar rose to fame in the 1950s, and was the biggest Indian movie star of the time. He was a pioneer of method acting, predating Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando. Much like Brando's influence on New Hollywood actors, Kumar inspired Hindi actors, including Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui. Neecha Nagar (1946) won the Palme d'Or at Cannes and Indian films competed for the [citation needed] award most years in the 1950s and early 1960s. Ray is regarded as one of the greatest auteurs of 20th century cinema, along with his contemporaries Dutt and Ghatak. In 1992, the Sight & Sound Critics' Poll ranked Ray at No. 7 in its list of Top 10 Directors of all time. Multiple films from this era are included among the greatest films of all time in various critics' and directors' polls, including The Apu Trilogy, Jalsaghar, Charulata Aranyer Din Ratri, Pyaasa, Kaagaz Ke Phool, Meghe Dhaka Tara, Komal Gandhar, Awaara, Baiju Bawra, Mother India, Mughal-e-Azam and Subarnarekha (also tied at No. 11). Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won the Best Actor award at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and was awarded the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995. Tamil cinema is 17  influenced by Dravidian politics, with prominent film personalities C N Annadurai, M G Ramachandran, M Karunanidhi and Jayalalithaa becoming Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu. 18