General Science PDF

GENERAL SCIENCE (SUMMARY) BIOLOGY Cell Structure and Function Understand the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Know the functions of cell organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.). Be familiar with the c...

GENERAL SCIENCE (SUMMARY) BIOLOGY Cell Structure and Function Understand the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Know the functions of cell organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.). Be familiar with the cell membrane structure and transport mechanisms (diffusion, osmosis). Genetics Grasp basic concepts of heredity (dominant vs. recessive traits). Understand Mendel's laws of inheritance. Familiarize yourself with DNA structure and replication. Evolution Know the theory of natural selection and its implications. Understand speciation and the concept of adaptation. Ecology Learn about ecosystems, food chains, and food webs. Understand biogeochemical cycles (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle). Chemistry Atomic Structure Know the basic structure of an atom (protons, neutrons, electrons). Understand isotopes and ions. Periodic Table Familiarize yourself with groups and periods. Understand trends such as electronegativity, atomic radius, and ionization energy. Chemical Bonds Differentiate between ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. Understand molecular geometry (VSEPR theory). Stoichiometry Be able to balance chemical equations. Understand mole concept and calculations involving moles. Acids and Bases Know the properties of acids and bases (pH scale). Familiarize yourself with neutralization reactions. Physics Newton's Laws of Motion  GENERAL SCIENCE Understand the three laws of motion and their applications. Energy and Work Know the concepts of kinetic energy, potential energy, and conservation of energy. Waves and Sound Understand wave properties (wavelength, frequency, amplitude). Familiarize yourself with sound waves and their characteristics. Electricity and Magnetism Know Ohm's Law (V = IR) and basic circuit components (DETAILED) Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It encompasses various fields, including genetics, ecology, evolution, and physiology. Understanding biology is crucial for comprehending the complexities of life on Earth. Key Concepts in Biology Cell Theory All living organisms are composed of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. Genetics DNA Structure: DNA is a double helix made up of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine). Gene Expression: The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product (usually proteins). Mendelian Genetics: Principles of inheritance established by Gregor Mendel, including concepts like dominant and recessive traits. Evolution Natural Selection: The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Evidence for Evolution: Fossil records, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, and biogeography. Ecology Study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Levels of organization: individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere. Energy flow and nutrient cycling in ecosystems (food chains/webs).  GENERAL SCIENCE Physiology Study of the functions and mechanisms in a living system. Major systems include: Circulatory System Respiratory System Nervous System Digestive System Endocrine System Microbiology Study of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi). Importance in health (pathogens vs. beneficial microbes) and ecology (decomposers). Plant Biology Photosynthesis: Process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll. Plant structure: Roots, stems, leaves; understanding plant anatomy and physiology. Animal Behavior Study of how animals interact with each other and their environments. Concepts such as instinctual behavior vs. learned behavior. Important Biological Processes Photosynthesis Occurs in chloroplasts of plant cells. Equation: (6CO_2 + 6H_2O + light \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2) Two main stages: Light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Cellular Respiration Process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP). Equation: (C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP) Stages include Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells; essential for growth and repair. Phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Meiosis: Specialized cell division that produces gametes (sperm and eggs); involves two rounds of division leading to four non-identical cells.  GENERAL SCIENCE Key processes include crossing over and independent assortment. Classification of Living Organisms Taxonomy The science of classifying organisms into hierarchical categories. Major ranks include Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Three Domains of Life Bacteria: Prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. Archaea: Prokaryotic organisms often found in extreme environments. Eukarya: Organisms with eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi, protists). Kingdoms within Eukarya Plantae: Multicellular photosynthetic organisms. Animalia: Multicellular heterotrophic organisms. Fungi: Decomposers that absorb nutrients from organic material. Protista: Diverse group including unicellular and simple multicellular organisms. Human Impact on Biology Conservation Biology Study of biodiversity and the effects of human activity on ecosystems. Importance of preserving habitats and endangered species. Genetic Engineering Techniques such as CRISPR and recombinant DNA technology used to modify genetic material for various applications. Applications include agriculture (GMOs), medicine (gene therapy), and research. Environmental Issues Climate Change: The impact of greenhouse gas emissions on global temperatures, weather patterns, and ecosystems. Pollution: Effects of air, water, and soil pollution on living organisms and ecosystems. Habitat Destruction: Consequences of deforestation, urbanization, and land use changes on biodiversity. Sustainable Practices Importance of sustainable agriculture, renewable energy sources, and conservation efforts to mitigate human impact on the environment. Key Terms and Definitions Homeostasis: The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.  GENERAL SCIENCE Symbiosis: A close ecological relationship between two or more different species; includes mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Adaptation: A trait that enhances an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Biomes: Large ecological areas on the Earth's surface with distinct climates and communities (e.g., tundra, rainforest, desert).