Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Book 8 PDF

it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools BOOK 8 IT’S THE MILLENIUM SUCCESS SCIENCE FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS BOOK 8 I ...

it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools BOOK 8 IT’S THE MILLENIUM SUCCESS SCIENCE FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS BOOK 8 I  Copyright oc 2021 Aduboffour Kobea Anthony First Published in 2011 Reprinted in 2013 Revised edition in 2018 New edition [Book 8] in 2021. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or be transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or in any other information storage retrieval system, without a written permission from the copyright owner. Published and distributed by; It's the Millennium Success Publications Limited Kumasi -Ghana ISBN : 978 - 9988 - 1 - 8787 - 3 II  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools BOOK 8 PREFACE The author drew his inspiration to write these books from the general inadequacy of good study materials that can make the learning of science at the basic level to interesting among beginners. This lack of interest is responsible for the reduction in the number of students that actively pursue science as a career path after the junior high level. With his effort in addressing this academic challenge, the author has written the books to cover all the strands in the Common Core Program from the Curriculum Research and Development Division of the Ghana Education Service on Science. Book eight has been designed to build upon the basic introductory knowledge from book seven. Each strand ends with some related/likely exam questions to test the student’s level of understanding. The entire series is strongly recommended for students beginning the new curriculum structure in the junior high level. For it will help them to understand and to appreciate science as a practical subject whose study leads to a multi-disciplinary field of careers. Dr. Frank Ofori Agyemang Faculty of Engineering Department of Material Science KNUST. Kumasi - Ghana. V III  Acknowledgement ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My first and foremost thanks goes to God Almighty for the knowledge, guidance and protection that HE has bestowed upon me to be able to come out with the second of these series. I also appreciate the prayers and diverse contributions from my Fathers in the Faith at Power Chapel Headquarters in Kumasi, especially Rev. Simms, Rev. Tuffuour, Rev. Philip, Rev. Owusu Bempah, Prophet Amoako Atta and the General Overseer; Prophet Victor Kusi Boateng. God reward you all mightily for tendering HIS sheep that HE has left in your care. A word of praise goes to Madam Christiana Akosua Birago, my beloved mother who stood firmly by me during my challenging times in life. To my dear mum, I say, You are One in a million. A great deal of appreciation goes to my friends; Salifu Mohammed and Adu - Gyamfi Emmanuel for their diverse support and sincere contributions towards making this edition a reality. I will like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Frank Ofori Agyemang, for writing the preface to this edition. I may be ungrateful if I fail to acknowledge Creative Print Media, Mumbai - India for a great and quality printing. The name of Madam Portia Adjei of Kwaprow D/A Basic School is worthy of mention for her immense contributions during the writing of the maiden edition in 2011. God richly bless you. I sincerely appreciate your diverse contributions toward the successful publication of this book. Although I will like to share all the credit given to the book with the above named people, yet I solely remain liable to any human errors that it may contain. The Author IV  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 DEDICATION I dedicate this book to the memory of my late sister ‘Cecilia Dentaah’ who took me as a brother and as a son, nurtured and inspired me to who I am today. Although she is no more, yet I will forever remember her for the sincere contributions that she made towards my education. A NOTE TO THE USER OF THE BOOK With the introduction of the Common Core Programme (CCP), many changes have been made to the teaching and the learning of integrated science at the pre-tertiary level. Students are required to participate in the practical concept of the subject and to appreciate the important roles that science plays in our lives. Notwithstanding the attempt that have been made by the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service to provide the needed learning materials, there is still a deficit in the required learning aids. Book 8 comes with detailed diagrams and in-depth notes that will enable the student to follow each topic without difficulty. To enhance the vocabulary of learners, the synonyms of some words have also been included in some sentences. With the use of brackets; i.e. [] and slant; i.e. / to separate all these similar words. The purpose of the author's use of two or more word options in some sentences is to promote diversity in the answers of students which to prevent the likelihood of producing the same answers to questions during examinations. Finally, each strand is followed by either some relevant past questions or likely examination questions. This is to test the students' understanding of that strand. I end by encouraging teachers and instructors to coach/guide students on scientific experiments in line with the present reforms. The Author V V  Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS STRAND PAGES STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER 1-2 Sub-strand 1 Materials............................... 3 - 43 Sub-strand 2 Living Cells............................. 44- 57 STRAND 2: CYCLES 58 - 59 Sub-strand 1 Earth Science......................... 60 - 68 Sub-strand 2 Life Cycle of Organisms....... 69 - 74 Sub-strand 3 Crop Production....................... 75 - 80 Sub-strand 4 Animal Production................. 81 - 88 STRAND 3: SYSTEMS 89 - 90 Sub-strand 1 The Human Body Systems.... 91 - 98 Sub-strand 2 The Solar System................... 99 - 105 Sub-strand 3 The Ecosystem........................ 106 - 112 Sub-strand 4 Farming Systems................... 113 - 121 VI  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 TABLE OF CONTENTS STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY 122 - 123 Sub-strand 1 Energy................................... 124 - 134 Sub-strand 2 Electricity and Electronics...... 135 - 144 Sub-strand 3 Conversion and Conservation of Energy................................... 145 - 154 Sub-strand 4 Force and Motion..................... 155 - 166 Sub-strand 5 Agricultural Tools.................... 167 - 176 STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 177 - 179 Sub-strand 1 Waste Management............... 180 - 185 Sub-strand 2 Human Health......................... 186 - 195 Sub-strand 3 Science and Industry............... 196 - 203 Sub-strand 4 Climate Change and Green Economy................................... 204 - 207 Sub-strand 5 Understanding the Environment............................. 208 - 220 INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS : 27 - 29 VII  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science STRAND 1 DIVERSITY OF MATTER SUB STRAND 1: MATERIALS SUB STRAND 2: LIVING CELLS 9 VIII  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 STRAND1 : DIVERSITY OF MATTER INTRODUCTION Note:1 Contamination is the process of making a material/substance impure by Most of the things/materials that exist the addition of an impurity; i.e. another physically around us are all [different] material/substance. forms/examples of matter. ALL the various forms of matter has these 2. The process of contamination two features/components of mass c a n p o l l u t e / p o i s o n a and volume [occupies space]. material/substance. Such a contaminated material can be made From the above description, Sound pure again through purification; i.e. the [voice] is a common example of removal of the impurity which is both something which cannot be classified as expensive and time-consuming. matter because the above components of mass and volume cannot be easily determined/known/measured. A mixture is obtained whenever two or more different materials are Every material; i.e. form of matter has its combined/joined/added together. unique usage or function to serve. This is usually because each form of matter has As earlier indicated, the properties of a its own unique/different constituent material describes its unique abilities atoms [particles] as well as which also influences/determines its arrangement. uses. Often times, two or more different Mixtures are generally formed when an materials; i.e. forms of matter are mixed activity requires two or more together to produce a mixture. materials to be combined together. This is usually because the nature/kind of This is usually in response to the nature of the work to be done may require the the task or work that must be combination of the properties of the performed/done. various materials. We come across and use various forms of For instance; in the daily meals that we mixtures in our daily activities. Some eat, we usually combine foods with mixtures may come about by a process different nutrient contents like; called contamination but not by carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils purpose [intention]. [lipids], vitamins and minerals. 1  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science This form of combination; i.e. mixture 1. Food preparation in plants formation is important because each [photosynthesis]. food nutrient has its own unique set of functions in the Human body. 2. Helps in the transportation of materials using the current/force of Furthermore, a food nutrient like transpiration/guttation. carbohydrate cannot perform the exact function of another like protein in the Note: a. Transpiration is the process body. during which water moves through a plant to be evaporated; i.e lost as So in effect, a person needs a balanced vapour from the aerial parts like; leaves, diet which is a mixture of all the various stems and flowers. food nutrients in their right amounts in b. Guttation is the process during order to grow well. which water is lost as droplets from the tips/edges of the leaves of some plants From a balanced diet, the body is able like grasses and some fungi. to get all the needed nutrients for them to perform their respective functions. 3. Promotes/encourages the activities of soil organisms. Naturally; i.e. in nature, certain materials also exist together in a collective state/form as a mixture. The air present in soil; i.e. soil air is used by plant roots and soil organisms for The soil is a typical example of such a respiration. natural environment that exists as a mixture. The organic matter [humus] present in soil is needed for important activities The soil is made up of components like; like; soil particles; i.e. gravels, sand, silt and clay, water, air and organic matter 1. Adds/contributes to the soil structure; [humus]. i.e. soil content. Each of the above components has a 2. Decays/rots to provide nutrients for special role to play in the natural plants growth. function of the soil. 3. Binds soil particles together to make The various soil particles contribute to them compact. important soil features/characteristics A compact soil is strengthened/fortified like; texture and structure. against erosion; i.e. loss of soil particles. The water present in soil; i.e. soil water is 4. Improves the water holding ability used for important activities like; [capacity] of the soil. 2  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 SUB - STRAND 1: MATERIALS INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS matter; i.e. solid, liquid or gas. At the end of this sub strand, the These complex forms of matter called student should be able to: mixture are thus obtained by mixing two or more of the three basic forms 1. Identify types of mixture by name and together. characteristics. 2. Design and perform processes for The three main/common forms of separating the various kinds of mixtures. matter are sometimes combined 3. Describe atoms as composed of sub- together to form a mixture depending atomic particles. on the type/kind of work that it is to be 4. Explain the arrangement of elements in used to do/perform. terms of the number of protons in the nuclei of atoms of each element.. Note: 1. Every kind of matter/material has its own unique properties/behaviour that makes it suited/best to be used to carry-out a specific/particular activity; i.e. form of work. 2. The natural properties; i.e. behaviour of one material may be MATERIALS different from those of others. Materials/matter exits and can be found 3. The difference in the natural in three forms. properties/behaviour of various forms of These are; Solids, Liquids and Gases. materials is what accounts for the reason why different materials have different Apart from these three common uses/functions. forms of matter, a fourth state/type/form of material/matter called plasma has been found to exist. MIXTURES Note: Plasma is super heated matter or ionized gas. A mixture is created/formed by the combination of two or more different Some forms of matter are complex in the substances/materials together by a sense that, they are formed by the physical/reversible process. physical combination of two or more of the common forms/types/states of Note: Since a mixture is a reversible 3  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science product; i.e. formed by a physical 1. Homogeneous [uniform] mixture process/means, it can be easily A homogeneous mixture is a type of separated into its constituent mixture in which the different [component] materials by the use of substances; i.e. components of the some physical processes/means. mixture, mixes up completely together in such a way that the two substances For instance; the combination of sugar are seen/appear as one. and water forms a sugar solution. In a homogeneous mixture, the mixture The sugar solution; as a mixture, can be composition is uniform; i.e. the same separated back into sugar and water by throughout the mixture. a physical processes of evaporation or distillation. Examples of homogeneous mixture includes; a mixture of salt and water [salt Examples of Mixture solution], a mixture of sugar and water [sugar solution], a mixture of different There are several forms of mixtures which non-harmful gases [air], a mixture of can serve as examples of same alcohol and water [diluted alcohol], a depending on the states of matter that mixture of different metals [alloy], wine, were combined to form/obtain them. shampoo, vinegar, smog, etc. These include; 1. Solid - solid mixture; 2. Solid - liquid mixture; 3. Gas - gas mixture; 4. Solid - gas mixture; 5. Liquid - gas mixture; 6. Liquid - liquid mixture, etc. From the above illustration and at this level of study, it can be deduced that the common examples of mixture are formed by any two states of matter shampoo, vinegar and wine are examples together. of uniform mixture Types/forms of Mixture a mixture of salt There are two main types of mixtures. and water forms These are; 1. Homogeneous mixture; a uniform mixture and [salt solution] 2. Heterogeneous mixture. 4  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 2. Heterogeneous [non-uniform] mixture A heterogeneous mixture is a type of mixture in which the different components; i.e. materials of the mixture do not mix up completely together but are easily found/seen to be made of different; i.e. two or more parts/phases. In a heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not uniform throughout The arrangement of the different soil the mixture. c o m p o n e n t s w i t h varying sizes make the soil a heterogeneous mixture. Examples of heterogeneous [ non- uniform] mixture includes; a mixture of oil and water, ice in water, salt and oil, Differences between homogeneous sand and water [muddy water], etc. and heterogeneous mixtures Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures differ from each other in terms of the following parameters/ properties/characteristics/features; i. The extent/degree of similarity/likeness in the composition and properties of the components of that mixture. oil + water ii. The number of phases/parts formed in salt + oil the resulting mixture. oil and salt and oil and water each forms a heterogeneous mixture iii. The method and ease of separating the mixture into its various components. In addition to the above, there are some iv. The relative sizes of the particles of types of mixtures that appear each of the materials in the mixture. homogeneous from a distance but are actually heterogeneous from a closer v. The extent/degree of miscibility of the look [inspection]. components of the mixture into a unit; i.e. as one part, as a result of the Such mixtures include; blood and soil. similarities between the various components/parts. 5  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science The Table below compares the major differences between homogeneous mixture and heterogeneous mixture Characteristic feature Homogeneous Heterogeneous [parameter] mixture mixture 1. Extent/degree of similarity The various components The various components of the components in the mixture in the mixture have similar properties have different properties 2. Number of parts/phases One phase/part of the Two phases/parts of the formed mixture is formed mixture is formed A complex process is A simple process is 3. The ease and method of required to separate it required to separate it separation andthis makes and this makes the mode the mode of separation of separation easy difficult The different components The different components 4. The degree/extent of mix together well because do not mix together well miscibility as a result of they have similar colour, because they do not have likeness/similarity density/weight, etc. s i m i l a r c o l o u r, density/weight, etc. 5. The relative sizes of the The sizes of the particles in The sizes of the particles in particles of each material the various materials are the various materials are in the mixture similar to each other different to each other Composition of Mixtures A mixture is formed by combining two T h e t w o [ 2 ] d i f f e r e n t or more different substances/materials substances/materials may be of the together. same state/form or of different states/forms. At this level of study, the forms of mixture to be studied have two main The various combinations of the different components only. forms of matter to form a mixture made 6  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 up of two different substances are; Examples of this type of mixture Solid - solid mixture, Solid - liquid includes; mixture, Gas - gas mixture, Solid - gas mixture, Liquid - gas mixture, and Liquid 1. Chlorine gas is dissolved in water; to - liquid mixture. kill the micro-organisms that might be present in the water during water purification. 2. Oxygen gas which is dissolved in 1. Liquid - liquid mixture water; is used by aquatic organisms for A liquid - liquid mixture is a type of respiration. mixture that is formed from the physical 3. Carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in combination of two or more liquid most soft drinks; which gives these soft substances together. drinks their fizzy [bubbling] nature. From the types of mixtures, a liquid - liquid mixture can be uniform; i.e. 3. Gas - gas mixture homogeneous or non-uniform; i.e. A gas - gas mixture is a type of mixture heterogeneous. that is formed from the physical combination of two or more gaseous Two or more liquids that combines to substances that have been put together. form a uniform/homogeneous mixture are called miscible liquids. A typical example of a gas - gas mixture is Air. Examples of miscible liquids that forms a Air is a mixture of various non-harmful homogeneous mixture are; a mixture of gases. water and alcohol/ethanol, a mixture of water and vinegar, a mixture of water and wine, etc. The table below is a list of some major gases in the mixture air and their Note: A pair of miscible liquids always percentage composition forms a homogeneous/uniform mixture or an emulsion. Component of Percentage air composition Nitrogen 78% 2. Gas - liquid mixture A gas - liquid mixture is a type of mixture Oxygen 21% that is formed from the physical combination of a gaseous substance Carbon dioxide 0.03% and a liquid substance that has been put together. Inert gases 0.9% 7  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science 4. Solid - gas mixture Note: When evaporation is used to A solid - gas mixture is a type of mixture separate a solution into its components, that is formed from the physical the liquid component/part of that combination of a solid substance and a solution is usually lost to the atmosphere gaseous substance that have been put in the form of vapour. together. For example; dust is a mixture of sand Terms under solution particles that have been suspended in air, smoke is a mixture of soot particles 1. Solute suspended in air. A solute is the solid component of a solution that dissolves in the solvent [liquid component]. Examples of common solutes are sugar, 5. Solid - liquid mixture salt, coal tar [bitumen], chlorophyll, A solid - liquid mixture is a type of mixture etc. that is formed from the physical combination of a solid substance and a 2. Solvent liquid substance that have been put A solvent is the liquid component of a together. solution that dissolves the solute [solid component]. A solid - liquid mixture may either form a solution or a solid-liquid suspension Examples of common solvents are; [suspension]. water [the universal solvent], petrol, kerosene, turpentine, thinner, etc. Parts of a solid - liquid mixture Note: Water is also referred to as the universal solvent because it can dissolve a. Solution almost every solute. A solution is a uniform mixture between a solute; i.e. solid substance and a solvent; i.e. liquid substance. The table below is a list of some common solvents and their respective A solution is also a homogenous solid - solutes that can dissolve in them. liquid mixture because the solute usually dissolves completely in the solvent. Solvent that can Solute dissolve it A solution can be separated into its components; i.e. its solid part and liquid Salt, Sugar, Emu- Water part, either by the use of simple lsion paint distillation or evaporation. Oil paint Kerosene 8  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 Chlorophyll Alcohol Similarities; i.e. likeness and differences; i.e. disparities between Coal tar Turpentine solutes and solvents [bitumen] Grease Petrol Solutes and solvents are the two main parts of a solid-liquid mixture. Note: From the above table, the suitable There are certain qualities/attributes that solvent of grease is petrol, and this can be used to show/indicate the level of explains why a mechanic/fitter washes sameness as well as differences his hands with petrol after work but not between the components of a solid- water. liquid mixture. The table below compares and contrast a solute and a solvent Parameter Solute Solvent A solute is the substance A solvent is the substance 1. Definition [material] that [material] that dissolves in the solvent. dissolves the solute. 2. Quantity/proportion The solute is mostly less The solvent is mostly more /percentage/amount than the solvent in a given than the solute in a given in the mixture quantity of mixture. quantity of mixture. 3. Boiling point of the The solute usually has The solvent usually has substance/material a higher boiling point than a lower boiling point than the solvent the solute The solute is mostly solid but The solvent is mostly liquid but 4. Physical state there are also liquid and there are also liquid forms gaseous forms Types of solution There are various forms of solutions that must be known at this level of study. i. Concentrated [strong] solution Their differences comes about as a result A concentrated solution is a type of of the percentage compositions solution that has more solute [solid [relative amounts] of the solute and the component] than solvent [liquid solvent that formed that solution. component]. These are; 9  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science ii. Dilute [weak] solution vi. Isotonic solution A dilute solution is a type of solution that An isotonic solution is a type of solution has more solvent [liquid component] that has an equal concentration with than solute [solid component]. that of its surroundings. iii. Aqueous solution Note: In an isotonic solution, there is no An aqueous solution is a type of solution net movement of water [solvent that was prepared using water as its molecules] between the solution and its solvent. surroundings. Note: Most solutions that are prepared in the laboratory are forms of aqueous solutions. b. Suspension A suspension is a type of a solid - liquid mixture in which the solid components iv. Hypotonic solution [solute] does not dissolve completely in A hypotonic solution is a solution that has the liquid component [solvent]. a higher concentration than the concentration of its surroundings. A suspension is also a heterogenous solid - liquid mixture because the Note: A hypotonic solution is formed solvent does not completely dissolve the when a dilute solution that is surrounded solute. by a semi-permeable membrane is put into a concentrated solution. A suspension is usually separated into its individual components; i.e. the solid For example; a red blood cell that is put part and the liquid part, by either into water. filtration or sedimentation. Examples suspensions includes; a v. Hypertonic solution mixture of sand and water, a mixture of A hypertonic solution is a type of powdered chalk and water, a mixture of solution that has a lower concentration groundnut paste and water, etc. than the concentration of its surroundings. Note: A hypertonic solution is formed when a concentrated solution that is 6. Solid - solid mixture surrounded by a semi-permeable A solid - solid mixture is a type of mixture membrane is put into a dilute solution. that is formed from the physical combination of two or more solid For example; a red blood cell put into a substances together. salt solution [brine]. Examples include; a mixture of chalk 10  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 Examples include; a mixture of chalk 2. Powder is a solid state of matter dust and sand, a mixture of iron filings because its molecules/particles also and chalk powder, an alloy [a mixture of have relatively strong intermolecular two or more metals], etc. forces that causes them to behave much differently from liquids. As solutes, powder dissolves much faster than granules in the same quantity of a Preparation and separation of mixtures given solvent. In our daily lives, most of the materials [substances] that we see or use are either The table below groups/classifies some solids or liquids. common materials; as solid or liquid. Materials like; powder, pebbles, bottles, Chlorophyll Solid Liquid Alcohol bottle tops, sugar, salt, sand, gari, chalk Coal powder tar Turpentine gravels, are solids. Turpentine [bitumen] pebbles water Others like; water, oil, petrol, porridge bottle Grease tops Petrol [koko], tea, beverage, cooking oil, sand, gari, salt Kerosene, soup petrol, diesel, kerosene are also liquids. Note: 1. Solid materials are found; i.e. exists in two common forms. When substances/materials are combined, the mixture obtained can be These are; the granular form [granules] either uniform; i.e. homogeneous or and the powder form [ powder]. non-uniform; i.e. heterogeneous depending on certain factors. Granular solids [granules] have big and These several factors as already course; i.e. rough particle sizes and as discussed are based on either the such they can be easily picked by the similarities or the differences in their fingers of our hands. properties. Granular solids include; pebbles and gravels. The table below describes some types of mixtures formed by putting any of the Powdery solids [powder] have very fine, above materials together and the dry and very smooth particle sizes. nature of the resultant product [mixture] A typical example of powder is silt or formed. clay. 11  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science Components Mixture formed and its nature Chlorophyll ReasonsAlcohol of mixture Coal tar Turpentine Salt + water Salt solution; homogeneous [bitumen] Water dissolves the salt Sand + water Muddy water; heterogeneous Water does not dissolves the salt Water + oil Oil-water emulsion, heterogeneous Water and oil are immiscible liquids Water + Water and ethanol [alcohol] are ethanol Dilute solution miscible liquids. [alcohol] From the definition of mixtures, it was On the other hand, a prepared mixture indicated that the components in a can also be separated into its individual mixture are combined together components by some simple physical physically. processes. The process of combining/adding two The process of completely putting apart or more substances together to form the components of a mixture is known as a mixture is known as the preparation of the separation of mixtures. mixtures. Preparation and separation of mixture From the beginning of the strand, it was salt + water salt solution. indicated that a mixture is obtained by From the above, salt mixed with water combining two or more things forms a salt solution. together physically. Likewise, a salt solution can be separated back into salt and water. The product of a physical process can easily be separated; i.e. be reversed back into the original materials which Preparation of mixture were combined to obtain/form them. In the laboratory and even in the Note: A physical process is thus a classroom, some mixtures can be reversible process as demonstrated prepared by following some simple [illustrated] below; procedures. 12  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 Examples of such mixtures that can be Aim : To demonstrate [show] that prepared includes; salt solution [a powdered chalk cannot dissolve in mixture of water and salt], a mixture of water. chalk and water, a mixture of palm oil water, etc. Apparatus : Powdered chalk, water and a beaker [container]. Method : Weigh about 5g of the a. The preparation of salt solution [An powdered chalk and add it to about experiment to demonstrate that salt 250ml of water in a beaker or container. and water forms a uniform mixture] Stir the resulting mixture vigorously and allow it to settle [stand]. Aim : To demonstrate [show] that salt can dissolve in water. Observation : It is observed that the two substances of powdered chalk and Apparatus used : Common salt [NaCl], water have not mixed up completely but water, and a beaker [container]. rather the powdered chalk have settled below the water at the bottom of the Procedure : Weigh about 5g of common beaker. salt and add it to about 250ml of water in a beaker [container]. Stir the mixture Conclusion : Powdered chalk and water continuously for sometime. when mixed together forms a heterogenous mixture or a non-uniform Observation : It is observed that the two mixture or a suspension. substances of salt and water have mixed together completely; i.e. the water have dissolved the salt/the salt have been dissolved in the water. c. The preparation of a mixture of palm oil and water [An experiment to show Conclusion : Water and salt forms a that palm oil and water are immiscible homogenous solution or a uniform liquids] solution. Aim : To demonstrate [show] that palm oil and water are immiscible liquids. Apparatus : Palm oil, water and a b. The preparation of a mixture of beaker [container] powdered chalk and water [An experiment to demonstrate that Method : Add equal volumes of the powdered chalk and water forms a palm oil and the water together in the heterogenous solution] beaker. 13  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science Cover the mouth of the beaker with your physical and the chemical properties of palm. the components in that mixture. Shake the beaker with its contents vigorously and allow them to settle. There are several ways/means that can be used to separate a given mixture into Observation : It is observed that the two its constituents/components that came liquids of palm oil and water have not together to form it. mixed up completely but rather the palm oil is found floating on top of the In choosing a method to separate a water. given mixture, the following factors/conditions must be considered; Note: Oil is heavier than water, as one molecule of oil depending on its state 1. The original/initial state of each of the may contain several carbon atoms and mixture components; i.e. either solid, this makes it weigh more than a single liquid or gas. molecule of water. 2. The unique/special properties; i.e. individual abilities of the components, However, in terms of density; water is far such as; the ability to be attracted by a more denser than oil. magnet, the ability to sublime; i.e. This is because, provided that the two change directly from solid to gas, etc. liquids; i.e. water and oil have the same/equal volume, then there will be 3. The ability of one of the components more water molecules than oil to be dissolved into a given molecules per unit volume of liquid. solvent/liquid; i.e. dissolution abilities of For this reason; oil will float on water even the components in certain solvents. though water is lighter in weight than oil. 4. The relative/comparative sizes of the components of the mixture. Conclusion: Water and palm oil forms a heterogenous mixture OR palm oil and 5. The relative/comparative weight of water are immiscible liquids. the mixture components, that introduces an opportunity for the lighter part to be blown away by moving air [wind] such as Separation of mixtures during the process of winnowing. A mixture can be separated into its individual, original components by certain physical means/processes. From the indicated factors/conditions above, the various ways of separating However, the separation method that is some common mixtures into their used in each case will depend on the respective components/parts include; 14  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 1. Filtration Retort Filtration is a method that is used to stand Glass rod separate an insoluble solid [solute] from a liquid [solvent] in a suspension; i.e. a heterogenous solid - liquid mixture. By the process of filtration, the mixture to be separated is poured into a funnel with a filter paper/cotton wool already placed in it to cover the mouth or opening of the funnel. Beaker containing mixture Filter paper Residue Note:1.The glass rod prevents the mixture from splashing; i.e spilling of the Funnel beaker. 2. The retort stand is to hold the set- Conical flask up firmly in place; i.e. make it steady Filtrate during the experiment process. The liquid component of the mixture drains through the filter paper and it is collected into the beaker as the filtrate. 2. Sedimentation and Decantation Decantation and decantation are The solid component remains on the related and depended processes that surface of the filter paper and it is are used to separate a heterogeneous collected as the residue. mixture in which one of the components is a liquid. When the above set-up in arranged during an experimen t, two other Sedimentation describes the process by apparatus; i.e. a glass rod and a retort which the heavier particles in a stand are added. suspension settles down to the bottom of a container/beaker. 15  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science D e c a n t a t i o n i s t h e p ro c e s s o f The process of decantation can be separating/taking the lighter part facilitated by adding chemicals like [supernatant] of a suspension from a alum or slacked lime. container without disturbing the heavy part [sediments]. When the processes of sedimentation and decantation are used to separate The process that can be used to separate muddy/dirty water into its components, either an emulsion or a suspension into its the supernatant becomes the clear components. water and the sediments becomes the sand. During the process of decantation, the mixture is allowed to stand/stay Note: Sedimentation; i.e. the ability of a undisturbed for a long time. heterogeneous mixture to separate into its individual liquid components after it This allows/permits the heavy has been left to stand undisturbed for component of the mixture to settle below some time accounts for the reason why [under] the lighter component. some kinds of liquid medicines like cough mixture should be properly shaken before use. This shake-up ensures that all the mixture Glass rod components in the medicine are properly mixed together for effective function/work. Supernatant 3. Magnetic method [use of a magnet] The magnetic method is a method that can be used to separate a mixture in which at least one of the mixture Sediments components is a magnetic substance. By the magnetic method, a permanent The lighter component [supernatant] magnet is gently passed through the which now forms the top layer of the mixture for the magnet to attract and mixture can be carefully poured away take away; i.e. remove all the magnetic leaving behind the heavy component substances and leave behind the non- [sediments]. magnetic substances. 16  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 direction of the air Sulphur Iron filings seeds Magnet husk Sulphur + Iron filings Examples of mixtures that can be separated by the use of the magnetic method includes; sulphur and iron filings, chalk dust and iron filings, sand grains and iron nails, ferrous and non-fereous metals, iron dust and sand, etc. 5. Sieving Sieving is a method that is used to 4. Winnowing separate a mixture taking into account Winnowing is the method that is used to the relative sizes of the components of separate the solid components of a the mixture and their individual abilities thrashed cereal into the seed and the to be able to pass through a sieving chaff by the help of the wind [moving air]. fabric. Coarse/large By the process of winnowing, wind component [moving air] is allowed to pass through the thrashed cereal for the part/component that is light in weight which is usually the chaff or the husk to Sieve be blown away leaving behind the heavy [fine mesh] component/part which is usually the smaller seed or grain of the thrashed cereal that [fine] part serves as food. Note: The wind blows away the chaff from the seed leaving the grains to fall into a basket/mat. By the process of sieving, the mixture is 17  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science pressed onto a sieving fabric for the 6. Chromatography smaller/finer components to pass Chromatography is the method that is through the fabric leaving behind the used to separate the components of a bigger components on top of the fabric. liquid - liquid mixture using; i.e. taking into account the different rates of the Examples of mixture that can be movements of all the liquid separated by sieving includes; gravels components in that mixture over an and sand, maize [corn] and chaff, absorbent material. wheat and bran, etc. The process of paper chromatography Solvent flow Solvent front Separated components Before After Solvent Time The pregnancy test device that uses Ink and chlorophyll are examples of urine from the female to determine her mixtures that can be separated into its pregnancy status is based on individual components by the process of chromatography; i.e. the ability to chromatography. separate the foetus urine from the Note: The absorbent material can be mother’s urine in the display column of either a glass material or even a filter the device. paper. 18  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 7. Distillation Distillation is a method that is used to separate a homogenous [uniform] mixture in which at least one of the components is a liquid into its individual fractionating components. c o l u m n Distillation can thus be used to separate a solution into its components. water inlet condenser 8. Evaporation vapour mixture Evaporation is a method that is used in water separating a solution into its outlet components. heat By the process of evaporation, the solution is heated strongly in an The distilled liquid is collected in a beaker evaporating dish to dryness. as the distillate. water vapour A typical example of a local process the evaporating use a form of distillation is the brewing/making of the local wine akpeteshie. mixture dish Another form of distillation known as fractional distillation includes a part bunsen called the fractionating column; which burner allows two or more liquids with close boiling points to be efficiently separated. The fractional distillation apparatus can After evaporation, the liquid component be used to separate a mixture of water of the solution [solvent] is lost to the and ethanol [alcohol], for purifying and atmosphere as vapour but the solid separating organic compounds in oil component of the solution [solute] refineries and chemical plants. remains in the evaporating dish as 19  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science crystals. During sublimation, the mixture is exposed for the component that sublimes to be lost to the atmosphere 9. Separating funnel leaving behind the other component(s) The separating funnel is used to that does not sublime. separate immiscible liquids in a mixture into its individual liquid components. Examples of mixtures that can be separated by sublimation includes; A mixture of naphthalene balls and sand, a mixture of ammonium chloride Separating and chalk dust, etc. funnel Lighter part Heavy part Separation of mixtures with components in the same state. Stopcock Mixtures with components in the same state of matter are always separated using the unique and different properties of the constituent components. Beaker Heavy part A mixture of immiscible liquids can be separated by the separating funnel or decantation, but that of miscible liquids can be separated by distillation. The heavy liquid settles below the lighter liquid.The heavy liquid is then collected With solid-solid mixtures, a magnet can first from the separating funnel by be used if one of the components is a opening the stopper, leaving behind the magnetic substance, like in the case of lighter liquid component. iron filings and sand. Contrally, if none of the two solids is a magnetic substance then the principle of dissolution of any of them in a given 10. Sublimation solvent such as water can be used. Sublimation is a method that is used to separate a solid - solid mixture in which For instance; How to separate a mixture at least one of the mixture components of common salt/sugar and sand can be sublimes. done as follows: 20  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 I. Add water to the mixture of common Colloid, suspension and their effects salt and sand by a process called dissolution. Colloid ii. The resulting mixture of salt solution A Colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in and sand is separated by filtration. which the dispersed particles are intermediate between those of a iii. The sand is obtained back as the solution and a suspension in terms of residue on the filter paper/cotton wool, size. but the liquid filtrate which is collected The particles are spread evenly into the beaker is a salt solution. throughout the dispersion medium, which can be a solid, li auid or gas. iv. The salt [salt crystals] is easily obtained back from the salt solution by evaporation. Suspension A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which some of the particles Everyday uses of the methods of settle out of the mixture upon standing separating mixtures. undisturbed. The methods of separating substances from their mixtures are employed in Suspension is heterogeneous in nature various ways in everyday life. because the solute particles in the For examples; mixture will not remain uniformly dispersed if it is not continuously stirred. 1. In the Coastal salt industry, common salt is obtained by allowing salty water to Example of a suspension is a mixture of evaporate. water and sand. 2. The Ghana Water Company limited uses filtration during water purification. Emulsion An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of a 3. The ethanol/alcohol that is used in liquid in either a liquid or a solid. thermometers and even as an alcoholic For an emulsion as a heterogeneous drink is obtained by the process of mixture to be stabilized, an emulsifying distillation. agent is required/needed. 4. Different kinds of petroleum products, For instance; Mayonnaise ; which is e.g. kerosene, petrol and vaseline; are made up of oil and vinegar cannot mix all obtained from crude oil [unrefined oil] together completely until as emulsifier by the method of distillation. like as egg yolk is added. 21  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science Similarly, soap also acts like an washing or cleaning of the later off your emulsifying agent to hold water and a hands or clothes much easier and even dirty material like grease which makes possible. Differences among Suspension, Colloid and Solution The above three forms of matter differ from each other in the following basic ways; Colloid Suspension Chlorophyll Solution Alcohol PARAMETER Turpentine 1. Particles in a 1. Pa r t i c l e s i n a 1. Particles in a 1. SIZE OF colloid range from suspension are usually solution range from PARTICLES 1nm to 1000nm more than 1000nm 0.01nm to 1nm Turpentine 2. Colloids are hetero 2.Suspensions are hetero- 2. Solutions are homo- geneous in nature; g e n e o u s i n n a t u r e ; geneous in nature; 2. FORM OF i.e. are a form of i. e. a r e a f o r m o f i.e. are a form of a MIXTURE non-uniform mixture n o n - u n i f o r m m i x t u re uniform mixture 3. Solute particles in 3. Some solute particles 3. Pa r t i c l e s i n aTurpentine a colloid do not 3. ABILITY OF in a suspension settle solution do not settle separate when left PARTCLES TO down when left down when left to stand for a SETTLE IN THE to stand for a to stand for a MIXTURE l o n g t i m e l o n g t i m e l o n g t i m e undisturbed u n d i s t u r b e d u n d i s t u r b e d 4. Filtration can be Turpentine 4. Filtration cannot be 4. Filtration cannot be 4. T O B E used to separate used to separate used to separate S E PA R AT E D a colloid into its a suspension into its a solution into its BY FILTRATION c o m p o n e n t s components c o m p o n e n t s 5. Colloids can 5. Suspensions are mostly 5. Solutions do not 5. ABILITY TO s c a t t e r o p a q u e i n n a t u r e scatter light CAUSE/BRING light or cause and do not scatter C O L LO I D A L colloidal effect light EFFECT 6. Solute particles in a 6. Solute particles in a 6. Solute particles in a 6. ABILITY TO col l oi d can only suspension can solution cannot SEE/VIEW be seen with the be seen with b e s e e n w i t h PARTICLES miscroscope but not the naked or the naked or the naked eyes unaided eyes unaided eyes 22  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 TYNDALL [COLLOIDAL] EFFECT This reflection is because of the colloidal particles which move in a rapid and random fashion illustrating a Colloids are often confused with true random/brownian motion. homogeneous solutions because the individual particles of a colloid cannot The Brownian/random motion is caused be seen. by the collisions between the small colloidal particles and the molecules of However, when light is passed through a the dispersion medium. true solution, the dissolved particles are too small to deflect the light rays. On the contrary, the dispersed particles of a colloid are larger in size and thus Demonstration of colloidal [tyndall] have the ability to reflect light. effect The Tyndall [colloidal] effect is the Science is a practical subject. The study scattering of visible light rays by colloidal of such a discipline requires that certain particles. concepts and observations must be One can visibly see a light beam as it proved to the learner as evidence. passes through a fog, smoke or a scattered dust particles suspended in This approach to the study of science air. increases the understanding of students All these three examples above are and also give to them an industry forms of colloids. experience that will be required of them in the future. Similarly, suspensions may also be able to scatter light but if the number of suspended particles are too large in size, The demonstration of all Scientific the suspension may simply become processes as well as observations are opaque and the light will not scatter; i.e. done through experiments. the light scattering will not occur. Aim: To show/demonstrate that particles The ability of sunlight to be seen through in a colloid/suspension can scatter light a fine mist in the atmosphere is a typical rays. effect [observation] due to colloidal effect. Apparatus used: A light source [torch light], beaker, solution, suspension. Another property/behaviour of a colloidal system is observed when the Method: The solution and suspension colloids are studied under a light are poured into separate beakers. The microscope, the colloids scintillate; i.e. torch is lighted to allow its light to pass reflect brief/small flashes of light. through the contents of the beakers. 23  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science Solution Suspension Torch light no scattering of light scattering of light occurs in the solution occurs in the suspension Observation: It is observed that the Note:1. A body that does not reflect solution is unable to scatter the light from light usually absorbs it. the torch but the suspension scatters the light from the torch as seen above. 2. Therefore while as a suspension reflects light from the torch as seen in the above experiment, the solution rather Conclusion: Colloidal/tyndall effect absorbs the light from the source. The occurs in a suspension but not in a light cannot be seen in the solution as in solution. the suspension RELATED PAST QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following substances can 3. Which of the following substances is a dissolve almost all solutes ? mixture ? A. Kerosene B. Palm oil A. Sodium chloride B. Sulphur dioxide C. Water D. Turpentine C. Sugar solution D. Carbon dioxide E. Petrol E. Ammonium chloride [BECE 1991 obj. 7] [BECE 1992 obj. 16] 2. A uniform mixture of two or more 4. Which of the following mixtures can be metals is called. separated by filtration ? A. a solute B. a colloid A. salt in water B. sugar in water C. a compound D. a suspension C. sand in water D. oil palm in water E. an alloy E. omo in water [BECE 1991 obj. 37] [BECE 1993 obj. 13] 24  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 5. Kerosene and petrol are obtained from 10. Water is sometimes referred to as the crude by universal solvent because it A. distillation B. condensation A. is the purest liquid on earth. C. filtration D. evaporation B. is the commonest liquid on land E. decantation C. is found in all living cells. [BECE 1993 obj. 21] D. dissolves most substances [BECE 2005 obj. 22] 6. A mixture of raw starch and water is best separated by 11. Which of the following solvents can A. boiling B. distillation be used to remove grease from the C. decantation D. winnowing hands? E. crystallization. A. Alcohol B. Palm kernel oil [BECE 1993 obj. 36]. C. Turpentine D. Water [BECE 2006 obj. 23] 7. Which of the following processes should be carried out first when 12. A mixture of sugar and water can be separating a mixture of sand and separated by common salt ? A. decantation B. evaporation A. Crystallization of the salt C. filtration D. sublimation B. Dissolution of the salt [BECE 2016 obj. 27] C. Distillation of the solvent D. Filtration of the mixture 13. Which of the following apparatus is E. Sublimation of the solute not required in the process of distillation in [BECE 1998 obj. 30] the laboratory? A. Condenser B. Evaporating dish 8. A mixture of sand and common salt C. Bunsen burner D. Round bottom flask could be separated by [BECE 2017 obj. 11] A. Filtration and distillation B. Dissolution and evaporation 14. Which of the following substances is a C. Dissolution, sedimentation and mixture? evaporation. A. Water D. Dissolution, filtration and evaporation B. Sodium chloride E. Sedimentation and filtration C. Sodium chloride solution [BECE 1999 obj. 1] D. Iron filing [BECE 2017 obj. 16] 9. The method used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid is 15. Show how you will separate each of A. crystallization B. distillation the following mixtures; C. filtration D. sublimation i. common salt and sand [BECE 2003 obj. 1] ii. muddy water [BECE 1990 Q 3b] 25  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science 16. Name the method which can be used to separate each of the following Muddy mixtures into their components : water i. Alcohol and water; I ii. Salt and water; II iii. Powdered charcoal and iron filings iv. Powdered chalk and water. III [BECE 1992 Q 1d] 17. State one solvent for each of the following substances. Beaker i. Common salt ii. Paint Filtrate iii. Coal tar iv. Sucrose v. Chlorophyll. Name each of the parts labeled I, II and [BECE 1995 Q 4d] III. 18. Explain how sulphur can be obtained ii. State the function of the part labeled II from a mixture of sulphur and iron filings. [BECE 1996 Q 1f] iii. Name the substance that is obtained as the filtrate 19. State the method that can be used to separate each of the following mixture? iv. State three physical properties of the i. iodine and sand filtrate ii. ethanol and water [BECE 2001 Q3 e] v. Name two other materials that could be used in place of the part labeled II 20. State the method which could be [BECE 2017 Q1c] used to separate each of the following mixtures and explain your answer in each case : i. salt and water; ii. sawdust and iron filings; iii. powdered charcoal and water. [BECE 2004 Q 5b] 21. The diagram below is an illustration of an experiment performed to separate the components of muddy water. Study it carefully and use it to answer the following questions 26  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTS This stage/step involves the arrangement of the required laboratory tools/equipment to form a set-up. Experiments are systematic procedures that are used to confirm scientific Note: The set-up of an experiment observations and processes. describes how the laboratory tools to be used are arranged in the Experiments make the study of science a correct/needed order. practical subject which also serves as a true preparation for its learners for At this foundational level, the set-up can industry; i.e. respective scientific careers be arranged for the student by the in the future. instructor, but he/she must learn to do that by a diagram guide with time. All scientific experiments at this level of study are simply some tried and verified [tested] approaches [methods] that are LABORATORY TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS used to confirm/prove/verify some The various laboratory instruments are simple and basic scientific classified into groups using their functions. findings/processes/ observations. These are; Measuring instruments for For studying convenience, all scientific length experiments are sub-divided into six stages [steps]. meter rule tape measure These are; [surveyor’s tape] i. Aim The aim is the motive/purpose/reason for needed/required to per form the experiment. This is the first step in the process and it also differentiates one experiment from another. It even determines how the rest of the remaining four steps are to be carried out/performed. outside callipers inside callipers iii. Method/procedure The method/procedure of an experiment is the rightfully laid down steps that describes the correct order by vernier callipers which the experiment is carried micrometer screw out/performed. gauge 27  Table of Contents Introduction Dedication to Experiments Integrated Science Volumetric instruments for measuring Supporting devices for holding other the volumes of liquids instruments during experiments retort stand and clamp wire gauze pipette burette conical flask tripod stand bunsen burner test funnel [heat source] volumetric flask tube Holding instruments for holding hot objects tongs forceps test tube rack [test tube holder] flat bottom flask Laboratory masses metallic objects with their masses on them to serve as known weight during experiments standard masses slotted masses reagent distilled water round bottom bottom b o t t l e flask 28  it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume BOOK18 v. Observation/inference Forms of experiments The obser vation/inference is an expected result/outcome that is seen and recorded at the end of the Experiments are grouped into two experiment. forms which are usually conducted at the Note: At this level of study, the same time together. observation [inference] must usually These are;.confirm/approve/validate/prove an I. The main [actual] experiment already known scientific findings or idea. and ii. The control experiment. For instance; light travels in a straight line, starch is produced in a green plant after photosynthesis, light energy is i. The main/actual experiment. needed before photosynthesis can The main experiment contains all the occur, etc. needed conditions and tools that are Certain experiments may have data needed/required for the process. which can include; tables and graphs on the entire process which can be added The result/observation/outcome of this at this point. type of experiment always approves/validates an already established scientific obser vation v. Conclusion [finding]. A conclusion on an experiment is the final statement of truth that summarizes all the observed/verified facts/findings. ii. The control experiment The control experiment usually lacks one vi. Precaution of the conditions/factors/tools for the The precaution is a set of careful steps experiment process. [rules] that are taken during the experiment process. This makes the result/outcome different These rules when followed, protect the from the expected and this is due to the experiment results/outcome from errors lack of one or more of the needed and the experimenter; i.e. conditions or factors. student/scientist from injuries. The control experiment is done/carried- out/performed alongside the main Important: Students are advised to strictly experiment to affirm/confirm the study all the experiments in the book importance as well as the role of a under these six sub-headings above particular/specific condition/factor/tool so that they can easily approach and in the experiment process. answer examination questions on them. 29  Introduction Table Diversity Dedication of Contents of Matter to Integrated Science THE ATOM AS THE BASIC COMPONENT Compound [BUILDING UNIT] OF MATTER A compound is formed when the atoms of different elements are combined Matter is made up of entities/particles. together chemically in a fixed ratio. This concept is called the particulate nature of matter. The definitions of the particles above The particles/entities that make up shows the presence of atoms in each of matter could be; atoms, ions, them and since the relationship between molecules, radicals or compounds. the atom and each of the remaining particles. The atom is the most important particle of matter because it forms the A flow chart diagram showing the other/remaining particles like; ions, relationship among