Biological Macromolecules PDF

Biological Macromolecules Introduction: - Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. - All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules. Macromolecule: - Macromolecules are polymers. - A polymer is a long molecul...

Biological Macromolecules Introduction: - Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. - All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules. Macromolecule: - Macromolecules are polymers. - A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks. - These small building-block molecules are called monomers. - Macromolecules are polymers built from monomers. Dehydration - Dehydration occurs when a water molecule is removed during a chemical reaction, typically to join two smaller molecules together into a larger molecule. Hydrolysis - Hydrolysis is the opposite of dehydration, involving the addition of a water molecule to break a bond within a larger molecule, resulting in smaller molecules. Carbohydrates: - Carbohydrates are formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms with a ratio of 1:2:1. - Commonly, these molecules are known as sugars. - What is the formula of the carbohydrate if it has eight (8) carbon atoms in its structure? C8H16O8 - Carbohydrates are collectively called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon = sugar) Monosaccharide ○ 1 sugar unit ○ Examples: Glucose, dextrose Disaccharide ○ 2 sugar units ○ Examples: Sucrose, lactose Oligosaccharide ○ 3-10 sugar units ○ Examples: Raffinose, stachyose  Polysaccharide ○ More than 10 sugar units ○ Examples: Starch, glycogen - They are an excellent source of energy for the many different activities going on in our cells. - They help control blood glucose and insulin metabolism, participate in cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism, and help with fermentation. Lipids: Refers to a wide variety of biomolecules including fats, oils, waxes, and steroid hormones. Regardless of their structure, location, or function in a cell/body, all lipids share common features that enable them to be grouped together. All lipids are hydrophobic. They do NOT dissolve in water. Not soluble in water Lipids are either liquid or non-crystalline solid at room temperature. Energy-rich organic molecules. Lipids are composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (lipids also contain nitrogen in some cases). A triglyceride is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that serves as a major form of energy storage in the body. Cholesterol is carried through the blood on two types of proteins called lipoproteins. LDL ○ Also called “Bad-Density Lipoproteins”. If you have a high LDL level, this means that you have too much LDL cholesterol in your blood. This extra LDL, along with other substances, forms plaque. This plaque builds up in your arteries, giving you atherosclerosis. HDL ○ It collects excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and arterial walls and carries it back to the liver for disposal or recycling. - Fats are a good source of stored energy. - Oils and waxes are used to form protective layers on our skin, preventing infection. - Some lipids, the steroid hormones, are important regulators of cell activity. a. Saturated Fat There are no double bonds, meaning, carbon is “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Typically solid at room temperature. Source: Animal products (like meat, butter, and cheese) And some plant oils (like coconut oil and palm oil). Palm Oil has 50% saturated fat (Use in moderation) Coconut Oil has 90% saturated fat (Use in moderation) b. Unsaturated Fat The double bonds create “kinks”, preventing the fats from packing tightly. Usually liquid at room temperature. Found in plant oils (like olive oil, canola oil) and fatty fish (like salon and trout). Canola Oil has 63% unsaturated fat (Use in moderation) Olive Oil has 70% unsaturated fat (Use in moderation) Cholesterols: ○ It is a waxy substance found in your blood. Our body needs cholesterol to build healthy cells, but high levels of cholesterol can increase your risk of heart disease. ○ The body needs it to make hormones, Vitamin D, and substances that aid in digestion. ○ The liver produces all the cholesterol your body needs, so you don’t need to consume it through food. ○ Cholesterol from food mostly ends up in the liver. If you are getting too much, this can increase your risk for fatty liver disease. Trans fat is a type of unsaturated fat modified to have a different chemical structure, making it more stable and solid at room temperature. They enhance flavor stability, texture, and shelf life. In short, trans fats are artificially created unsaturated fats that mimic the properties of saturated fats. These fats are unhealthy as reducing or avoiding trans fats is widely recommended to maintain heart health and overall well-being. Proteins: It is composed of the elements carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes sulfur. Proteins are polymers of amino acids, arranged in the form of chains called polypeptides. Within living organisms, there are 20 amino acids used as protein building blocks. They differ from one another only in the R-group position. ○ Main Functions: Proteins replicate and transcribe DNA, and produce, process, and secrete other proteins. They control cell division, metabolism, and the flow of materials and information into and out of the cell. Proteins speed up reactions, provide support to muscles and bones, and create hormones. Nucleic Acids: They are polynucleotides – that is, long chainlike molecules composed of a series of nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing aromatic (nitrogenous) base attached to a pentose (five-carbon) sugar attached to a phosphate group. Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible nitrogen – containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) Uracil is a nitrogenous base that is not found in DNA Pairs: Guanine (G) & Cytosine (C) ; Adenine (A) & Thymine (T) These molecules are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). ○ Main Functions: They are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by directing the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of every living thing. Tests for Biomolecules:  1. Benedict’s Test - Test for reducing sugars. - A positive result will turn the solution from blue to green, yellow, orange, or red. 2. Iodine Test - Test for starch. - A positive result for starch will turn the solution blue-black. 3. Biuret Test - Test for proteins. - A positive result for protein will turn the solution violet or purple. 4. Ethanol Emulsion - Test for lipids. - A positive result for lipids will produce a cloudy white emulsion. Plant-based: Bread, Potato, and Banana Animal-based: Egg & Milk a. Reducing Sugars - Both food types can contain reducing sugars, though plant-based samples may show stronger directions in naturally sweet items like fruits. b. Starch - Starch is exclusive to plant-based foods and absent in animal-based samples. c. Proteins  - Animal-based foods generally have more proteins and yield stronger Biuret test results. d. Lipids - Animal-based foods contain more lipids, while many plant-based foods are low in fat unless oils or seeds are present. Major Endocrine Glands and their Hormones Hormones: - These are chemical messengers - These are produced by endocrine glands (including the hypothalamus) in different parts of the body. - These chemical messengers are produced in very small quantities and are transported in the blood. - Hormones control body processes that require several organs of the body to interact for a combined effect. Oxytocin: - This is released when a woman is nursing her infant when two people are hugging, and during sexual activity. It’s also thought to be involved in other corollary emotional responses of bonding, lie trust building and empathy - This also affects opposite behaviors such as jealousy, envy, and suspicion Hypothalamus - It is found in the base of the brain. This serves as a link to our nervous and endocrine systems. - It knows the sensations you are aware of, and it also controls the things we are not aware of. - Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones. Major Endocrine Glands: 1. Adrenal - These are attached to the kidney surface. Their hormones control growth, sugar metabolism, kidney function and stress. 2. Hypothalamus - Found at the base of the brain. The main controlling gland. Its hormones control most body functions and all other glands, together with sexual activity. 3. Ovaries - Produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. 4. Pancreas - Located in a fold of the duodenum. Proceeds insulin to control sugar metabolism. 5. Parathyroids - Located near the thyroid glands in the neck. Control calcium and phosphorus deposition. 6. Pituitary - Found at the base of the brain. Hormones control growth, reproduction, lactation, and stress. 7. Placenta - Afterbirth membranes that cover the foetus. Maintains pregnancy and produces female hormones. 8. Testicles - Produce the male hormone testosterone. 9. Thyroid - Controls metabolism and growth. Glucagon - Glucagon's primary function is to increase blood sugar levels when they are low, ensuring the body has enough energy to function properly. It acts as a critical counterbalance to insulin in regulating blood sugar. Endocrine system - Focuses on internal communication using hormones that travel in the blood to regulate bodily functions over long distances. (Bloodstream) Exocrine system - Focuses on localized secretion of non-hormonal substances through ducts to perform specific tasks. (Outside/ducts) Location of Endocrine glands: - Hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands into the bloodstream. Hormones in the Reproductive System: - Hormones are necessary during puberty, ovulation, pregnancy, and development. - Reproductive glands are controlled by the pituitary gland. - After the age of 10, hormone levels begin to increase, and physical changes develop. Hormones in the reproductive system: Luteinizing Hormone (LH) ○ LH causes the testicles to make testosterone, which is important for producing sperm (spermatogenesis) ○ Stimulates the ovulation and secretion of progesterone (for female) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) ○ For females, it helps control the menstrual cycle and the production of eggs by the ovaries. ○ For males, it helps control the production of sperm and the amount of FSH in men normally remains stable after puberty. Hormones in the Reproductive System: ❖ Progesterone: - It is a hormone released by the corpus luteum in the ovary. - Creates a healthy uterine lining to support a fertilized egg, embryo, and fetus. - If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone production falls, and a new menstrual cycle begins.  ❖ Estrogen: - The primary function is the development of female secondary sexual characteristics. These include breasts, regulation of the menstrual cycle etc. - It decelerates height increases in females during puberty, accelerates the burning of body fat, and reduces muscle bulk. ❖ Testosterone: - Produced by the testes. It establishes and maintains secondary sex characteristics and sexual behavior; promotes maturation and production of sperm. - Maintains libido (sexual drive) and related behaviors. - Stimulates bone and muscle growth. - Establishes and maintains male secondary sex characteristics. - Maintains accessory glands and organs of the male reproductive system. Is testosterone a steroid? Testosterone is an anabolic-androgenic steroid that occurs naturally in the human body. ○ Increased male sex characters ○ Refers to muscle building ○ “Anabolic Steroids” generally refer to the synthetic (made in a lab) variations of testerone that are injected into your body. Some athletes and bodybuilders misuse synthetic testosterone (anabolic steroids) by taking very high doses of them to boost performance or change their physical appearance. Feel-Good Hormones: ❖ Dopamine: Most notably involved in helping us feel pleasure as part of the brain’s reward system. When overstimulated may lead to addiction. ❖ Oxytocin: Known as “love hormone”, and “cuddle hormone”. Its main function is to facilitate childbirth, it also promotes positive feelings. ❖ Endorphins: Our body’s natural pain reliever. These are released when our body feels pain or stress. ❖ Serotonin: Our natural mood booster. Helps our body to regulate anxiety, experience happiness, heal wounds, and stimulate nausea. Right levels of Dopamine: - To achieve and maintain the right level of dopamine: 1. Increase protein intake, particularly those containing the amino acid tyrosine, such as turkey, chicken, fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, and nuts in your diet. 2. Limit Saturated Fats. High saturated fat consumption can disrupt dopamine signaling. 3. Regular Exercise. Aim for at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise most days of the week. 4. Prioritize Quality Sleep. Aim for 7-9 hours of quality sleep per night to support mental alertness and mood stability. 5. Practice Gratitude. Engaging in daily gratitude exercises can foster a positive mindset and enhance dopamine production through improved emotional well-being. 6. Listen to Music. Enjoying music you love can trigger dopamine release. This can be a simple yet effective way to elevate your mood. 7. Participate in Enjoyable Hobbies. Engaging in activities that bring you joy such as art, gardening, socializing, etc. Feedback Mechanisms Homeostasis - It refers to a stable internal environment. - It is responsible in the regulation and maintenance of the body - The different body systems coordinate in regulating and maintaining internal balance. - Temperature, fluids, Salts and Nutrients Body cells need to work at their most favorable conditions to achieve homeostasis. Keeping the body in order looks easy, but it takes a lot of energy for your body to resist change. Feedback Mechanism A control system that reduces or minimizes a change/conditions of the body to keep the body stable Deviation from a set point or ideal value to attain homeostasis Thermoregulation - the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range. Positive Feedback Process by which stimulus causes a response which will increase the stimulation.  The original stimulus is promoted rather than negated. Positive feedback increases the deviation from an ideal normal value. Example: The increased release of oxytocin during childbirth. Oxytocin stimulates the muscle contractions that push the baby through the birth canal. Negative Feedback Receptors detect the change and initiate a response that will counter that change. The response will reverse or cause the opposite effect of the original stimulus. Example: If calcium decreases the parathyroid glands sense the decrease and secrete more parathyroid hormone.