Plate Tectonics PDF

Continental Drift Topics = OO SubTopics = OO Theory: Proposed by Alfred Wegener, suggesting that continents were once part of a single supercontinent called...

Continental Drift Topics = OO SubTopics = OO Theory: Proposed by Alfred Wegener, suggesting that continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea. Evidence: Fossil similarities, geological formations, and climate Plate Tectonics evidence across continents support this theory. Layers of the Earth 1. Crust: ○ Definition: The outermost layer of the Earth, solid and relatively thin. ○ Types: Continental Crust: Thicker and less dense, primarily composed of granite. (basically when everything was Oceanic Crust: together ykyk) Thinner and denser, primarily composed of Plate Tectonics basalt. 2. Mantle: Definition: The scientific theory ○ Definition: The layer beneath explaining the movement of the the crust, consisting of Earth's lithosphere, which is divided semi-solid rock that flows into tectonic plates. slowly. Asthenosphere: The semi-fluid layer ○ Convection Currents: These beneath the lithosphere that allows currents are caused by heat tectonic plates to move. from the Earth's core, driving the movement of tectonic Types of Plate Movement plates. 3. Outer Core: 1. Divergent Boundaries: ○ Definition: A liquid layer ○ Description: Plates move composed mainly of iron and apart from each other. nickel. ○ Example: Mid-ocean ridges, ○ Function: Movement within where new crust is formed this layer generates the from upwelling magma. Earth’s magnetic field. 4. Inner Core: (basically 2 tectonic plates ○ Definition: The solid move away from each other innermost layer, composed which could cause mainly of iron and nickel. earthquakes and volcanic ○ Conditions: Extremely hot eruptions yk) and under immense pressure. 2. Convergent Boundaries:  ○ Description: Plates collide, Measurement: leading to various geological ○ Seismographs: Instruments features. that detect and record the intensity and duration of (when two tectonic plates collide, and one seismic waves. slides under the other and can form mountains volcanoes or subduction zones Technologies to Detect Plate (subduction zones can cause earthquakes, Movement tsunamis volcanic eruptions and landslides yeah) 1. GPS: Global Positioning System that measures tectonic plate movements ○ Types: with high precision. Continental-Continen 2. Satellite Imagery: Used to observe tal: Creates mountain changes in landforms and track ranges (e.g., movements over time. Himalayas). 3. Seismometers: Instruments that Oceanic-Continental: measure the motion of the ground Leads to subduction during earthquakes. zones, forming trenches and volcanic arcs (e.g., Andes Mountains). Oceanic-Oceanic: Ecology Forms volcanic islands (e.g., Japan). Biotic and Abiotic Factors 3. Transform Boundaries: ○ Description: Plates slide past 1. Biotic Factors: each other horizontally. ○ Definition: Living components ○ Example: San Andreas Fault of an ecosystem, including in California, which is plants, animals, fungi, and associated with frequent bacteria. earthquakes. ○ Importance: Interactions among organisms (predation, Volcanoes competition, symbiosis) shape ecological communities. Formation: Can occur at both divergent and convergent boundaries. (living things of an ecosystem like plants Types of Eruptions: animals fungi and bacteria) ○ Explosive: Characterized by violent eruptions, often 2. Abiotic Factors: resulting from thick magma. ○ Definition: Non-living ○ Effusive: Involves the gentle components that affect flow of lava, typically from ecosystems, including shield volcanoes. temperature, sunlight, water, soil, and minerals. Earthquakes ○ Importance: These factors influence the types of Definition: The sudden release of organisms that can thrive in a energy in the Earth’s crust, resulting given environment. in seismic waves. Ecosystems (vapor forming clouds), precipitation (rain or snow), and infiltration (water Definition: A dynamic complex of soaking into the ground). living organisms and their non-living environment interacting as a (non living things that affet ecosystems functional unit. including sunlight wester soil and minerals) Components: Includes producers (plants), consumers (animals), and decomposers (fungi and bacteria). altogether abiotic factors (like climate) and biotic factors (like organisms) shape Food Chains and Food Webs ecosystems, influencing survival, reproduction, and interactions. 1. Food Chain: ○ Definition: A linear sequence that illustrates how energy and nutrients flow from one Nitrogen Cycle organism to another. ○ Example: Grass → Processes: The conversion of Grasshopper → Frog → nitrogen from the atmosphere into Snake → Hawk. various chemical forms. Key 2. Food Web: processes include: ○ Definition: A more complex ○ Nitrogen Fixation: network of interconnected food Conversion of nitrogen gas chains that illustrates the into ammonia by bacteria. various feeding relationships ○ Nitrification: Conversion of in an ecosystem. ammonia into nitrites and nitrates. The Earth’s Spheres ○ Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into nitrogen gas, 1. Lithosphere: returning it to the atmosphere. ○ Description: The solid outer layer of the Earth, including Carbon Cycle rocks and soil. 2. Hydrosphere: Processes: Movement of carbon ○ Description: All of Earth’s through the biosphere, geosphere, water, found in oceans, rivers, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Key lakes, and glaciers. components include: 3. Atmosphere: ○ Photosynthesis: Plants ○ Description: The layer of convert carbon dioxide into gases surrounding the Earth, organic compounds. essential for life. ○ Respiration: Organisms 4. Biosphere: release carbon dioxide back ○ Description: The global sum into the atmosphere. of all ecosystems; the zone of ○ Decomposition: Breakdown life on Earth. of organic matter, releasing carbon back into the soil and Water Cycle atmosphere. Processes: Involves evaporation Climate and Weather (water turning to vapor), condensation  1. Climate: adverse impacts on weather ○ Definition: The long-term patterns. average of weather conditions in a region, including temperature, humidity, and precipitation. 2. Weather: Atomic Structure and The ○ Definition: The short-term Periodic Table atmospheric conditions, including daily variations in Atomic Structure temperature and precipitation. 1. Atoms: Climate Change ○ Definition: The basic units of matter that make up all Definition: Long-term changes in substances. temperature and weather patterns, ○ Components: often attributed to human activities Protons: Positively such as fossil fuel combustion, charged particles found deforestation, and industrial in the nucleus. processes. Neutrons: Neutral particles also found in Sustainability and Biodiversity the nucleus. Electrons: Negatively Definition: Sustainability refers to charged particles that meeting the needs of the present orbit the nucleus in without compromising future energy levels. generations. Biodiversity is the variety 2. Nucleus: of life in the world, crucial for ○ Description: The dense ecosystem resilience and health. center of the atom, containing protons and neutrons. Human Impacts on the Earth’s 3. Electrons: Spheres ○ Behavior: Located in defined energy levels or shells around 1. Ozone Depletion: the nucleus, involved in ○ Causes: The use of chemical bonding. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals that harm Elements, Compounds, and Ions the ozone layer. ○ Effects: Increased UV 1. Element: radiation reaching the Earth's ○ Definition: A pure substance surface, leading to health and consisting of only one type of environmental issues. atom (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen). 2. Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: ○ Periodic Table: Organizes ○ Causes: Increased levels of elements based on atomic greenhouse gases, primarily number and properties. due to burning fossil fuels, 2. Compound: deforestation, and agricultural ○ Definition: A substance practices. formed when two or more ○ Effects: Global warming, elements chemically bond leading to climate change and together (e.g., water, CO₂).  3. Ion: ○ Definition: An atom that has gained or lost electrons, acquiring a positive (cation) or negative (anion) charge. History of the Atomic Model Early Models: ○ Dalton's Model: Atoms are indivisible particles. ○ Thomson's Model: Discovery of electrons; "plum pudding" model. ○ Rutherford's Model: Discovery of the nucleus; atom is mostly empty space. Modern Quantum Models: Incorporate wave-particle duality and electron clouds. Atomic Number and Mass 1. Atomic Number: ○ Definition: The number of protons in an atom, determining the element's identity. 2. Atomic Mass: ○ Definition: The average mass of an element's isotopes,