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Questions and Answers
What does the theory of Continental Drift propose about the continents?
What does the theory of Continental Drift propose about the continents?
Which of the following is NOT considered evidence supporting the theory of Continental Drift?
Which of the following is NOT considered evidence supporting the theory of Continental Drift?
What primarily composes the Oceanic Crust?
What primarily composes the Oceanic Crust?
What is the primary composition of the inner core?
What is the primary composition of the inner core?
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Which layer of the Earth is described as semi-solid rock that flows slowly?
Which layer of the Earth is described as semi-solid rock that flows slowly?
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What geological feature is formed at convergent boundaries where an oceanic plate slides under a continental plate?
What geological feature is formed at convergent boundaries where an oceanic plate slides under a continental plate?
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Which type of boundary involves tectonic plates sliding past each other horizontally?
Which type of boundary involves tectonic plates sliding past each other horizontally?
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How are convection currents in the Earth's mantle generated?
How are convection currents in the Earth's mantle generated?
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What is one of the methods for measuring tectonic plate movements?
What is one of the methods for measuring tectonic plate movements?
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What is the key feature of divergent boundaries in plate tectonics?
What is the key feature of divergent boundaries in plate tectonics?
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What is the composition of the Outer Core?
What is the composition of the Outer Core?
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Which geological feature is typically formed as a result of oceanic-oceanic convergence?
Which geological feature is typically formed as a result of oceanic-oceanic convergence?
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What is the role of seismographs in geology?
What is the role of seismographs in geology?
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Which layer allows tectonic plates to move due to its semi-fluid properties?
Which layer allows tectonic plates to move due to its semi-fluid properties?
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What type of geological event can subduction zones lead to?
What type of geological event can subduction zones lead to?
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Which of the following structures is created at continental-continental convergent boundaries?
Which of the following structures is created at continental-continental convergent boundaries?
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What does a food chain illustrate?
What does a food chain illustrate?
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Which process converts nitrogen gas into ammonia?
Which process converts nitrogen gas into ammonia?
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Which of the following best describes the biosphere?
Which of the following best describes the biosphere?
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What is the primary role of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle?
What is the primary role of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle?
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What is the main function of denitrification in the nitrogen cycle?
What is the main function of denitrification in the nitrogen cycle?
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Which layer of the Earth is defined as the hydrosphere?
Which layer of the Earth is defined as the hydrosphere?
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What role does decomposition play in the carbon cycle?
What role does decomposition play in the carbon cycle?
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Which of the following is NOT a component of the nitrogen cycle?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the nitrogen cycle?
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What defines climate?
What defines climate?
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Which process involves water turning to vapor?
Which process involves water turning to vapor?
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What is a significant factor attributed to climate change?
What is a significant factor attributed to climate change?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes atoms?
Which of the following statements accurately describes atoms?
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What is the role of neutrons in an atom?
What is the role of neutrons in an atom?
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What does sustainability refer to?
What does sustainability refer to?
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Which part of the atom is described as the dense center containing protons and neutrons?
Which part of the atom is described as the dense center containing protons and neutrons?
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What behavior do electrons exhibit within an atom?
What behavior do electrons exhibit within an atom?
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What is the primary cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect?
What is the primary cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect?
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Which statement correctly defines an ion?
Which statement correctly defines an ion?
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What is indicated by the atomic number of an element?
What is indicated by the atomic number of an element?
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Which model of the atom proposed that atoms are indivisible particles?
Which model of the atom proposed that atoms are indivisible particles?
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What are compounds formed from?
What are compounds formed from?
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Study Notes
Topics = OO
SubTopics = OO
Plate Tectonics
Layers of the Earth
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Crust:
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Definition: The outermost layer of the Earth, solid and relatively thin.
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Types:
- Continental Crust: Thicker and less dense, primarily composed of granThinner and denser, primarily composed of basalt.
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Mantle:
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Definition: layer beneath the crust, consisting of magnesium, aluminum, silicon,
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Oceanic Crust: semi-solid rock that flows slowly.
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Convection Currents: These currents are caused by heat from the Earth's core, driving the movement of tectonic plates.
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Outer Core:
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Definition: A liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel.
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Function: Movement within this layer generates the Earth’s magnetic field.
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Inner Core:
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Definition: The solid innermost layer, composed mainly of iron and nickel.
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Conditions: Extremely hot and under immense pressure.
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Continental Drift
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Theory: Proposed by Alfred Wegener, suggesting that continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea.
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Evidence: Fossil similarities, geological formations, and climate evidence across continents support this theory.
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(basically when everything was together ykyk)
Plate Tectonics
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Definition: The scientific theory explaining the movement of the Earth's lithosphere, which is divided into tectonic plates.
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Asthenosphere: The semi-fluid layer beneath the lithosphere that allows tectonic plates to move.
Types of Plate Movement
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Divergent Boundaries:
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Description: Plates move apart from each other.
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Example: Mid-ocean ridges, where new crust is formed from upwelling magma.
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(basically 2 tectonic plates move away from each other which could cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, ocean ridges, ridges yk)
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Convergent Boundaries:
- Description: Plates collide, leading to various geological features.
(when 2 tectonic plates collide, and one slides under the other and can form mountains volcanoes or subduction zones (subduction zones can cause earthquakes, tsunamis volcanic eruptions and landslides yeah)
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Types:
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Continental-Continental: Creates mountain ranges (e.g., Himalayas).
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Oceanic-Continental: Leads to subduction zones, forming trenches and volcanic arcs (e.g., Andes Mountains).
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Oceanic-Oceanic: Forms volcanic islands (e.g., Japan).
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Transform Boundaries:
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Description: Plates slide past each other horizontally.
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Example: San Andreas Fault in California, which is associated with frequent earthquakes.
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(cause earthquakes’)
Volcanoes
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Formation: Can occur at both divergent and convergent boundaries.
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Types of Eruptions:
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Explosive: Characterized by violent eruptions, often resulting from thick magma.
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Effusive: Involves the gentle flow of lava, typically from shield volcanoes.
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Earthquakes
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Definition: The sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust, resulting in seismic waves.
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Measurement:
- Seismographs: Instruments that detect and record the intensity and duration of seismic waves.
Technologies to Detect Plate Movement
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GPS: Global Positioning System that measures tectonic plate movements with high precision.
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Satellite Imagery: Used to observe changes in landforms and track movements over time.
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Seismometers: Instruments that measure the motion of the ground during earthquakes.
Ecology
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
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Biotic Factors:
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Definition: Living components of an ecosystem, including plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.
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Importance: Interactions among organisms (predation, competition, symbiosis) shape ecological communities.
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(living things of an ecosystem like plants animals fungi and bacteria)
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Abiotic Factors:
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Definition: Non-living components that affect ecosystems, including temperature, sunlight, water, soil, and minerals.
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Importance: These factors influence the types of organisms that can thrive in a given environment.
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Ecosystems
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Definition: A dynamic complex of living organisms and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.
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Components: Includes producers (plants), consumers (animals), and decomposers (fungi and bacteria).
Food Chains and Food Webs
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Food Chain:
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Definition: A linear sequence that illustrates how energy and nutrients flow from one organism to another.
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Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.
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Food Web:
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Definition: A more complex network of interconnected food chains that illustrates the various feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
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The Earth’s Spheres
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Lithosphere:
- Description: The solid outer layer of the Earth, including rocks and soil.
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Hydrosphere:
- Description: All of Earth’s water, found in oceans, rivers, lakes, and glaciers.
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Atmosphere:
- Description: The layer of gases surrounding the Earth, essential for life.
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Biosphere:
- Description: The global sum of all ecosystems; the zone of life on Earth.
Water Cycle
- Processes: Involves evaporation (water turning to vapor), condensation (vapor forming clouds), precipitation (rain or snow), and infiltration (water soaking into the ground).
(non living things that affect ecosystems including sunlight wester soil and minerals)
altogether abiotic factors (like climate) and biotic factors (like organisms) shape ecosystems, influencing survival and reproduction
Nitrogen Cycle
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Processes: The conversion of nitrogen from the atmosphere into various chemical forms. Key processes include:
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Nitrogen Fixation: Conversion of nitrogen gas into ammonia by bacteria.
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Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia into nitrites and nitrates.
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Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into nitrogen gas, returning it to the atmosphere.
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Carbon Cycle
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Processes: Movement of carbon through the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Key components include:
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Photosynthesis: Plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds.
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Respiration: Organisms release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.
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Decomposition: Breakdown of organic matter, releasing carbon back into the soil and atmosphere.
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Climate and Weather
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Climate:
- Definition: The long-term average of weather conditions in a region, including temperature, humidity, and precipitation.
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Weather:
- Definition: The short-term atmospheric conditions, including daily variations in temperature and precipitation.
Climate Change
- Definition: Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns, often attributed to human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial processes.
Sustainability and Biodiversity
- Definition: Sustainability refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising future generations. Biodiversity is the variety of life in the world, crucial for ecosystem resilience and health.
Human Impacts on the Earth’s Spheres
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Ozone Depletion:
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Causes: The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals that harm the ozone layer.
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Effects: Increased UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface, leading to health and environmental issues.
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Enhanced Greenhouse Effect:
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Causes: Increased levels of greenhouse gases, primarily due to burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural practices.
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Effects: Global warming, leading to climate change and adverse impacts on weather patterns.
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Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table
Atomic Structure
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Atoms:
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Definition: The basic units of matter that make up all substances.
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Components:
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Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
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Neutrons: Neutral particles also found in the nucleus.
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Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in energy levels.
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Nucleus:
- Description: The dense center of the atom, containing protons and neutrons.
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Electrons:
- Behavior: Located in defined energy levels or shells around the nucleus, involved in chemical bonding.
Elements, Compounds, and Ions
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Element:
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Definition: A pure substance consisting of only one type of atom (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen).
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Periodic Table: Organizes elements based on atomic number and properties.
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Compound:
- Definition: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together (e.g., water, CO₂).
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Ion:
- Definition: An atom that has gained or lost electrons, acquiring a positive (cation) or negative (anion) charge.
History of the Atomic Model
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Early Models:
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Dalton's Model: Atoms are indivisible particles.
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Thomson's Model: Discovery of electrons; "plum pudding" model.
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Rutherford's Model: Discovery of the nucleus; atom is mostly empty space.
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Modern Quantum Models: Incorporate wave-particle duality and electron clouds.
Atomic Number and Mass
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Atomic Number:
- Definition: The number of protons in an atom, determining the element's identity.
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Atomic Mass:
- Definition: The average mass of an element's isotopes,
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