BLG181 Practice Exam Sept 2024 Mid Term PDF

BLG181 Practice Exam Sept 2024 DISCLAIMER: This study aid contains questions that were actually used in previous exams and therefor show overlap and redundancy. Be prepared to answer the questions below using DIAGRAMS that are well LABELED and have a POINT FORM explanation of the main points and u...

BLG181 Practice Exam Sept 2024 DISCLAIMER: This study aid contains questions that were actually used in previous exams and therefor show overlap and redundancy. Be prepared to answer the questions below using DIAGRAMS that are well LABELED and have a POINT FORM explanation of the main points and underlying principle that together clearly demonstrate UNDERSTANDING AND MASTERY of the course material in the most CONCISE form. Answer in TABLES or DIAGRAMS with labels and point form explanation of main points or principle. No essays answers will be marked. NO ESSAY ANSWERS WILL BE MARKED There are elements of each question that may require independent study from reliable primary sources to achieve full marks. Philosophy of Science Does science prove a hypothesis or disprove a hypothesis? What are the five parts to Occam's razor? Disprove Simplest Model that: -explains all data -contains few or no arbitrary elements -leads to testable predictions Make a table and use Occam's razor to compare and contrast the explanation of the fossil record: Evolution versus aliens leaving their weird pets on earth every 50,000 years and not coming back to feed them. Cosmological Evolution: Draw a rough timeline of the big bang, formation of the sun, heavy elements, earth, and conditions in our solar system and planet that permit the existence of life. 1 What is the meaning of the cosmological anthropic principle? "All observations must be consistent with the existence of the observer" What can be concluded from the existence of life and the universe. Geology How old is our planet. What are the most abundant elements on earth. What are the characteristics of the three types of rock. Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary Describe where you might find these rocks. What is the process that forms each kind of rock. Which kind of rock are fossils found in. What is the connection between Geology and Charles Lyell’s book to Darwin and evolution. What are the geological processes that still exist today which explain the formation of the landscape? Who was George Cuvier and what is the science of paleontology he founded – what are fossils? What the four forces? Briefly describe each force. The nuclear strong force The nuclear weak force The electromagnetic force 2 The force of Gravity Which force governs life? Explain that the biochemical and chemical reactions of life require the electromagnetic force. Explain the importance of using electromagnetic equipment to record experimental results. Life Life uses energy to avoid coming into equilibrium with its environment (i.e. to keep organized) and to reproduce. All life is made out of cells. What is cell theory. What are the three parts to cell theory. Explain the basics of cell theory. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. Cells arise from pre-existing cells. What is the paradox of cell theory. Life uses energy to create order, metabolism and replication and avoids coming into equilibrium with the environment but instead but maintains a dynamic steady state. Life is made of polymers that require Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphate, Oxygen and others. Life is a good design of polymers that works Chemical evolution Make a diagram showing the formation of the solar system and planet earth and the proposed time line of chemical and biological evolution Make a diagram to describe the Miller Urey experiment. Show the kinds of inorganic molecules added to the experiment, the types of organic molecules form and finally the kinds of biochemicals created. 3 What are the monomer or polymers that make up present life that were formed the Miller Urey experiment. What is RNA world. Describe the proposed steps in chemical evolution. What were Cricks three theories. (DNA double Helix, tRNA adaptor from language of DNA to language of proteins, RNA world – the central dogma) Are viruses alive? What are transposons or jumping genes and who discovered them (Barbara McClintock). Discuss the cooperation of molecules for mutual replication and how this avoids the paradox of the first self replicating molecule. Draw the central dogma of molecular biology and explain how molecules cooperate for mutual replication. Briefly describe the proposed steps of biotic evolution Make a diagram showing the proposed sequence of: -the first Archaic cells that might have metabolized chemicals produced by physical or chemical processes or absorbed heat energy from the environment in the absence of oxygen. -the cells that ate organic molecules from archea. -cellular evolution leading to the formation of photosynthetic cells that produced oxygen -oxygen revolution leading to the formation of aerobic cells - formation of euakyrotic cells from the symbiosis of archea, photosynthetic and aerobic cells -show the prokaryotic side of the family of life that remained as mitotic cells -show the eukaryotic side, with ever changing forms in the branching tree of life that uses replication by Meiosis (sexual replication) with Chromosome crossing over of DNA. Describe the evolutionary effect of constant large scale DNA re-arrangements What do we mean by the modular nature of genes and proteins and what effect would this have on the evolution of Eukaryotes? 4 Show the tree of life and include bacteria, archea, protests, plants and animals and fungi. What are the divisions, domains and kingdoms of life. In what order are the different types of life proposed to have evolved. What evidence support this? What are names and characteristic of the two major kinds of bacteria, Archea and Eubacteria. Which domains of life use mitosis for reproduction and which use Meiosis. Illustrate the Chiasmata that permit the recombination of chromosomes in Meisosis. What is a protist What are the Domains of life and its kingdoms etc, KPCOFGS Compare cell division by mitosis and meiosis. Show the generation of new chromosomes by recombination at the chiasmata in meisosis. Describe the life and times of Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution Whose unifying theory explained the phylogeny and origin of species? What is the proposed mechanism? What is the name of Darwin’s book What is the two step algorithm or mechanism proposed. Who was Malthus and what did he predict? Who was Alfred Russel Wallace and where did he do his collecting? What are the four broad lines of evidence in support of evolution today? What is fitness? What does survival of the fittest mean? The Human genome What is a gene? What is a trait. What is the inheritable genetic burden. How many types of RNA do we have ncRNA, tRNA, rRNA, mRNA, siRNA others! What percentage of the genome is covered in Genetic Elements. 99% 5 How many traits do we have? 5-10 million How many protein genes do humans have? How many genes do we have? > 1 million including ncRNA Draw a protein gene and show how it is bound by transcription factors at its enhancer and upstream regulatory elements. Describe the modular nature of DNA. What is the role of the protein enzyme DNA polymerase. What is the role of the protein enzyme RNA ploymerase. Show how RNA is expressed and how mRNA self catalyzes the removal of its own introns the introns and how the exons are ligated together to form the mRNA. What molecule catalyzes the removal of the introns from RNA and recombination of the exons to form mRNA? What is the genetic code? Who predicted the adaptor between nucleic acids and proteins? What is the general structure of the tRNA? Explain how a tRNA translated between the language of DNA to the language of proteins. What is the ribosome comprised of and what RNA molecule is catalytically active to create protein polymers. Make a diagram that shows how the mRNA together with the ribosome and tRNA polymerize amino acids into proteins. What is the function of rRNA, mRNA, tRNA Genetics Draw the Punnett Square for the dominant purple (PP) versus the recessive white (pp) in the first (F1) and second (F2) generation. Draw a dominant pedigree. Draw a recessive pedigree. 6 Traits controlled by multiple genes (polygenetic) often has a characteristic distribution curve in nature termed the Normal distribution. Draw the Normal distribution curve for a polygenetic trait. List and describe and several inherited disorders and the genetic lesion responsible with the OMIN number. Name some autosomal dominant genetic syndromes. Name some autosome recessive genetic syndromes. Name some sex linked genetic syndromes. Draw a family phylogeny for some trait (e.g. hemophilia in Russian Royal household). Compare mitosis and Meiosis. Outline the key differences in these two processes. Comment on the implication for genetic diversity through asexual and sexual reproduction. Cancer and viruses What were the experiments with viruses that earned Harold Varmus the Nobel prize. What is the relationship between viruses and cancer. Describe the integration of retroviruses like HIV into the DNA. Describe the oncogenes captured by viruses to take over the growth regulation of the cell. What are the types of proteins encoded by oncogenes. Draw a receptor for a growth factor like insulin and show how it is activated signal proteins and transcription factors leading to changes in gene expression leading to cell division. Show how a growth factor like insulin binds its tyrosine kinase type receptor and phosphorylates IRS to bind GRB, SOS and this activates a RAS protein leading to the activation of a MAP, RAF -ERK phosphorylation pathway to activate transcription factors like ELK or SRF to change gene expression What is the role of the guardian proteins like P53, APC and Rb protein in controlling apoptosis (regulated cell death) of cells in response to genetic damage. 7 Use Occam’s razor to critique the theorem: “The fossil record results from Aliens leaving their weird pets here every 50,000 years and not coming back to feed them.” Summarize the proposed steps of chemical and biological evolution in a timeline diagram with approximate date in billions of years. Describe the early-earth simulations. What were the products? Describe the molten globule model for protein folding using a potential energy diagram. Name the biopolymers and their monomers in a table and explain their functions. Polymer Monomer Nucleic acids DNA ATCG 8  RNA AUCG Protein amino acids Lipid C2 acetate C5 isoprene Carboydrate sugars Draw the tree of life. Describe the endosymbiotic theory and name the three domains of life. Eukaryotic Genomic DNA is most closely related to which other domain? What is the anthropic cosmological principle (Barrow and Tipler, 1986). Show the main types of signaling systems with a diagram. Describe where in the cell do these molecules exist? List the major types of viral proto-oncogenes. Who found these molecules and how? Draw the signal response to insulin from the binding of the ligand to changes in gene expression. 9 Show how the adrenergic receptor works from ligand binding to the production of glucose. What are the attributes of a signaling system? Draw the central dogma of molecular biology. Draw a gene. Show enhancers and upstream binding elements. Show the promoter, TATA box, Transcription start site, 5’ untranslated region, translation start site, introns and exons, stop codon, 3’ untranslated region, and poly adenylation signal of a gene encoding a protein. What percentage of human DNA codes for proteins? Show the parts i.e. mobile genetic elements G.E. of an imaginary protein gene including the enhancer, UAS sites, promoter, exons, introns and jumping gene or intron/exon boarders. Show which part binds transcription factors, which part is copied into RNA which parts (introns) are automatically cleaved out to yield the message RNA (mRNA). What are transposons, retroviruses, self-splicing introns and the crossing over that occurs during Meiosis. How might their functions relate to Chemical evolution and the modular nature of exons in Eukaryiotic proteins? What are jumping genes and what is the name of the sequences that are catalytically required for integration and excision from the DNA? What might be the relationship between Eukariotes having modular intron/exon genes, rapid evolution and jumping genes? State all five parts of Occam’s Razor: 10 Whose unifying theory explained the phylogeny and origin of species? In what book? What is the proposed two-part mechanism. Explain the Miller Urey Experiment. What were the products. What is the significance to the theory of chemical evolution. What kinds of molecules and monomers are formed in simulations of early earth. How do these relate to polymeric macromolecules that "work" in present day life. Humans have ~ how many traits? How many genes? What percentage of DNA codes for proteins versus regulatory regions. What percentage is jumping gene? Use diagrams to describe the modular nature of genes, RNA, mRNA and proteins. Show the Genetic Elements found in a Human protein gene such as an enhancer, UAS, transcription factors, RNA polymerase, Exons, Introns and the location of jumping Gene type sequences such as intron/exon borders, transposons, or other short sequences that permit binding, recognition, catalysis and recombination. The anthropic cosmological principle (Barrow and Tipler, 1986) sates that all of the observable physical parameters of the Universe must be consistent with the existence of the observer. Discuss the meaning in your own words. Describe the as many protein interaction domains and their binding targets in the context of the of the Insulin receptor or another receptor system of your choice. What percentage of human DNA codes for proteins, for RNA? Make a diagram of the geologic time scale of earth and label the VERY approximate dates of earths formation, period of major bombardment, first chemical evidence of life, first fossilized cells. Archea, the bacteria, the protist the first eukaryotes alga, slime molds and protzoans, the plants, animals, fungi. Show the location of symbiont events 11 Show how nitrogen enters the biosphere via glutamine synthase, how nitrogen may be moved between an alpha keto acid and an amino acid. What are the Four forces? Which one governs life? Which force can be temporarily, partially, governed by scientists in the laboratory? Described the proposed evolutionary mechanism and who provided the first description and evidence for it? In what book? Is this a random process? YES / NO Explain Stanley Miller and others simulated conditions on early earth and found not only the correct monomers but even polymers (the edge of the correct design space) were created "automatically" on early earth. It is true that the number of possibilities in the design space (library of Mendel) are V.AST and it has been argued that it is too improbable that evolution could "RANDOMLY" create the right sequences in the “good design space” Does the Miller Urey experiment touch the “edge” of the good design space? Does the observation of finding the "edge" (correct stereo specific monomers and short polymers) of the design space "automatically" in early earth simulations address the argument that chemical evolution is too improbable and therefore could not have happened? Explain Suggest the simplest model, that accounts for all RELIABLE AND REPRODUCIBLE MODERN OBSERVATIONS, contains few or NO ARBITRARY ELEMENTS and leads to TESTABLE PREDICTIONS regarding the appearance of life on Earth. 12 Why do proteins fold into reproducible shapes? Described the molten globule model of potential energy using a diagram. How do enzymes work to rapidly catalyze reactions. Describe in point form. 2) What is Occam’s Razor? Who invented it? What are the five parts of Occams razor? 3) Define Life in terms of energy, metabolism, work, replication, order and equilibrium versus dynamic steady state? Do living organisms and all the molecules in them obey all the chemical and physical laws that apply to all other matter? briefly explain. 4) What are the four macromolecules and their residues. Do macromolecules exert as strong an influence on the free energy of water (osmotic potential) compared to the sum of all their free residues? Explain. 5) Described the central dogma of molecular biology. Draw the complex dogma and show the macromolecules that bind each other and that catalyze or are catalytically required for mutual replication. Make sure to show: DNA polymerase and DNA replication, - RNA polymerase, RNA expression and reverse transcriptase - the formation of the heterogenous nuclear RNA (hn RNA) - the removal of introns and fusion of exons to form mRNA - the orchestration of mRNA, rRNA and tRNA at the ribosome to form proteins - protein modification and the connection of proteins to DNA replication, and RNA formation, editing, gene expression and other details 13 8) Is the sun the source of all biological energy? Is it true in light of some archaebacteria? Where are some of the extreme places that Archea live? Distinguish between archaebacteria and eubacteria with respect to their preferred environments and membrane composition. 9) Do living organisms and all the molecules in them obey all the chemical and physical laws that apply to all other matter? Briefly explain vitalism Who was Louis Pasteur What was the theory of spontaneous generation? 10) Summarize the theory of chemical (abiotic) evolution, RNA world leading to the formation of the first, archaic, cells. What evidence do we have for it? Who made simulations of the creation of biomolecule monomers on early earth describe the experimental set up Describe the types of inorganic molecules such as liquids and gasses required. Which of the monomers were formed? What are the four macromolecule polymers and their monomer residues? Describe the potential pathway of chemical evolution leading to the formation of the first catalytic and then mutual replication of molecules 14 11) Described the central dogma of molecular biology. Draw the complex dogma and show all the macromolecules that bind each other and catalyze or are catalytically required for mutual replication. Make sure to show the steps below and EMPHASIZE THE STEPS CATALYSED OR REGULATED BY RNA: DIAGRAM - the telomers and DNA replication, - RNA expression and reverse transcriptase - the formation of the heterogenous nuclear RNA (hn RNA) - the removal of introns and fusion of exons to form mRNA - the orchestration of mRNA, rRNA and tRNA at the ribosome to form proteins - protein modification and post translational modification -the role of proteins in DNA replication, and RNA formation, editing, gene expression and other details 12) Briefly describe the proposed steps of biotic evolution. What are the divisions, domains and kingdoms of life. In what order are the different types of like proposed to have evolved. What evidence support this? Make a DIADRAM showing the proposed sequence of: -The first cells that might have metabolized chemicals produced by physical or chemical processes. -cellular evolution leading to the formation of photosynthetic cells -oxygen revolution leading to the formation of aerobic cells - Formation of euakyrotic cells from the symbiosis of archea, photosynthetic and aerobic cells -show the prokaryotic side of the family of life that remained as mitotic cells versus 15 The eukaryotic side, with ever changing forms in the branching tree of life that uses replication by Meiosis (sexual replication). Describe the evolutionary effect of constant large scale DNA re-arrangements What do we mean by the modular nature of genes and proteins and what effect would this have on the evolution of Eukaryotes? -What is cell theory? 13) Describe the life of times of Charles Darwin and his theorey of evolution. Whose unifying theory explained the phylogeny and origin of species? What is the proposed mechanism? what is the name of Darwin’s book what is the two step algorithm or mechanism proposed what is the connection to Geology and Charles Lyell’s book. Who was Malthus and what did he predict? Who was Alfred Russel Wallace and where did he do his collecting? What are the four broad lines of evidence in support of evolution today? 14) Define Life in terms of energy, metabolism, work, replication, order and equilibrium versus dynamic steady state? what is a viroid? What is a prion? What is virus? Describe the types of bacteria What is a protist 16 What are the Domains of life and its kingdoms etc, KPCOFGS 20) What are the structural and functional relationships between different manners of recombining DNA or RNA found in nature. What are the implications for evolution? Describe the functions of the chiasmata at crossing over points between chromosomes. Describe viral integration sites What are transposons or jumping genes What are intron exon borders in eukaryotic RNA? Describe the modular nature of DNA 21) What are the homeoboxes and homeotic genes. What type of proteins do these gene encode. What is a homeotic mutations. Describe the linear arrangement of genes that control the animal body plan. 22) What were the experiments with viruses that earn Harrold Varmus the Nobel prize. What is the relationship beween virsus and cancer. What aer the types of proteins found in viruses and their cellular functions. What are oncogenes and proto oncogenes? 23) What is a signal transduction chain? Make a diagram showing the location and function of the components of a signal transduction chain in a cell. Show the ligand and its location with respect to the out side of the cell. Show the receptor with its extracellular, transmembrane and intracellular domains. Show the function of a receptor kinase or receptor associated kinase to make phosphorylated intermediates. Describe receptor associated enzymes. Describe protein kinases and phophatases. 17 Describe G proteins. Describe transcription factors. Show how the signal transduction chain can alter gene expression. Describe How nitrogen enters the biosphere and biosynthetic cycles Show how nitrogen enters the biosphere via glutamine synthase, how nitrogen may be moved between an alpha keto acid and an amino acid. 4) Describe the experiments by Miller and Urey that led to the generation of the universal small molecular metabolites. Make a diagram hypothesizing the steps of chemical evolution leading to the first self replicating molecule or complex. How does this avoid the paradox of the first self replicating molecule? 5) Name the biopolymers and their residues. Draw their basic structures. 6) Describe the endosymbiotic theory and name the three domains of life. Eukaryotic Genomic DNA is closely related to which domain? 11) Describe the principles that explain the catalytic actions and specificity of enzymes to enable reactions at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. 18 12) What is an enhancer. Make a diagram and explain the significance of palindromes, hairpins and cruciform structures of nucleic acid polymers. 18) Show the mechanism of the Na/K ATPase and describe its major function in the cell. What types of molecules can diffuse through the membrane with out the assistance of transporters or channels. 1) According to the big bang theory: All the parts of the universe started traveling away from each other at or near the speed of light about _______ Billion years ago. Now its really hard to get to the next part of the Universe since its got such a large head start. According to biologists life started on earth about _______ Billions years ago. According to archeologists written civilization started about 6-10,000 years ago. Geneticists postulate that our family started radiating from Africa about 50,000 100,000 years ago. Supposedly smart humans started building Atomic and Hydrogen bombs about 80 years ago. Cyano bacteria and then plants collected CO2 from the atmosphere for about 4 billion years and then 1 billion years to create oil and gas. We expect to burn all that carbon in 300 years. 300/ (4,000,000,000 years + 1,000,000,000) = 0.00000006. Thus we plan on burning entire carbon reserve of the planet about 17 millions times faster than it can be recaptured. What is the likely effect of releasing 5 billion years of carbon in 300 years? If everyone on earth pooled all their money at the start of human history to make a space ship that somehow traveled at the speed of light 300,000,000 m/s (or~ 1,080,000,000 km/hr) so we could to try and seed life onto a planet circling the next habitable solar system how far across the universe could we have got by now (In relative terms; circle most correct): Not very far Really, not very far at all. Such an astonishingly small fraction that it wont fit really fit into limited human imagination About 10,000 lights years into a universe with a radius of about 50,000,000,000 light years. 19 Even if our ship went at the speed of light at the start of human history we could go 0.000,000,2 of the way across the universe. IF our ship only goes 30,000 km/h (space rocket ship) and we started 10,000 years ago [ie not 1,080,000,000 km/hr] = 0.000 000 000 000 5 of the way across the universe that is expanding across the diameter at 2 x the speed of light. It getting bigger faster than we can move through it. 3) Show the insulin signaling pathway including the cross phosphorylating alpha and beta receptor sub-units, IRS-1, Grb, Sos, Ras (with lipid anchor), Raf-1, Mek, MAPK, Erk, Srf, Elk-1, PI3K (draw the phosphatidyl 3,4,5 tri-phosphate), PKB, GSK3, GS, Glut4. Include the location of the appropriate PH, SH2, and SH3, catalytic DNA binding, and any other interaction domains. Make diagrams that show a wide variety of protein-proteins, protein-lipid, protein-nucleic acid, protein-cofactor, protein-divalent metal catalytic or other domains. 4) What is Occam’s Razor? Who invented it? 5) Living organisms and all the molecules in them obey all the chemical and physical laws that apply to all other matter? True False Explain vitalism 6) What are the four macromolecules and their residues. Do macromolecules exert as strong an influence on the free energy of water (osmotic potential) compared to the sum of all their free residues? Explain. 7) Described the central dogma of molecular biology. Draw the complex dogma and show all the macromolecules that bind each other and catalyze or are catalytically required for mutual 20 replication. Include the telomers, DNA replication, RNA expression, proteins synthesis, protein modification and other details. 8) Summarize the theory of chemical (abiotic) evolution, RNA world and what evidence we have for it. Who did the first early-earth simulations? Summarize the theory of chemical (abiotic) evolution, RNA world and what evidence we have for it. What types of RNA or DNA mediated rearrangements or reactions are know? What are the types of molecules that perform these nucleic acid mediated reactions. Who did the first early-earth simulations? 9) The interaction of organic molecules including macromolecules are conveyed via: The nuclear strong force The nuclear weak force The electromagnetic force The force of Gravity Which one of the 4 fources is responsible for: Mechanical force van der Waals “force” The hydrophobic force Chemical energy The London force Can you name two or more sub-atomic particles that convey the electromagnetic force? (electron, photon) 21 12) Draw a Eukaryotic gene with its enhancers, upstream activation regions, acidic, basic or proline rich DNA binding factors transactivation factors, protein binding trans-activating factors, mediators, RNA Pol complex with phosphorylation, TATA box, Transcription start and stop sites, Translation start and stop sites, introns and exons. Whats a ORF? How many genes do you have? How many traits do you have? How could splicing, protein-protein interactions and post-translational modifications contribute to the number of traits? 13) Draw a general scheme for a hormone receptor, its associated G protein, PLC, draw the generation of DAG and IP3 (from phosphatidyl inositol 4,5 bis phosphate), the release of Ca 2+ from the sarcoplasm and the activation of PKC by Ca2+ and by DAG via its C2 domain. Make diagrams that show a wide variety of protein-proteins, protein-lipid, protein-nucleic acid, protein-cofactor, protein-divalent metal catalytic or other domains. 14) Make a diagram of a gene that encodes a proteins with many different interaction, catalytic and other domains that shows the modular nature of genes and proteins. Comment on the nature of the nucleic acid sequences that give rise to multiple IgG molecules, T-cell receptors and other or proteins from the same starting DNA or RNA sequence. Roughly what percentage of the DNA is mobile? 15) Define Life in terms of energy, metabolism, work, replication, order and equilibrium versus dynamic steady state? Explain. 16) Is the sun the source of all biological energy? Is it true in light of some archaebacteria? Where are some of the extreme places that Archea live? Distinguish between archaebacteria and eubacteria with respect to their preferred environments and membrane composition. 17) Which macromolecule was likely the first Enzyme? 18) Whose unifying theory explained the phylogeny and origin of species? 22  What is the proposed mechanism? 25) The anthropic cosmological principle (Barrow and Tipler, 1986) says in essence that there is nothing mysterious or divine about why our universe is so amenable to life if. If it were not amenable to life we would not be here to be mystified. Which of the below, if they had been any different, would likely have prevented you personally from ever reading this question? (circle): gravity, nuclear strong force, nuclear weak force, electromagentic force, time since the big bang, solar system's heavy element content, distance of planet from the sun, elemental composition of the planet, size of the planet, strength of chemical bonds, abundance of water, properties of water, type of atmosphere, physical constants, almost anything important you can think of, all of the above All of the observable physical constants and conditions of the universe must be 23 compatible with the existence of the ___________________. 27) Briefly described how jumping genes, intron removal and exon splicing, and crossing over during Meiosis may have contributed to Eukaryota's rapid evolution of complex body plans. How much of your DNA is jumping genes? 28) Humans have millions of traits but only ~20,000 protein genes. Where does the rest of the complexity come from? (check √) Post transcriptional splicing of exons into different protein Post translational modification of proteins Many mutations in each gene "Synthetic" mutation between protein variants in protein-protein complexes. All of the above None of the above. 29) Teologists have argued that because nature is so beautiful and perfectly designed it must have been created by a divine being. Darwinists argued that nature got so nice by directed (non- random) trial and error. However, the fossil record shows that almost all the complex higher life forms ever created through billions of years of time died out and became extinct or had to change. Given that most of the "designs" observed in the fossil record to date have died out and that genetic data shows all organisms are related but change over time: 24 In the space provided Use Occam's razor to try and DIS-PROVE: (simplicity, explains all data, no arbitrary elements, what predictions?). 1) Evolution 2) Aliens keep leaving their weird pets here every 50,000 years or so and don’t come back to feed them. 25