School Administration Complete PDF

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Written by: J. O. Mankoe Anthony Mensah Institute for Distance and e-Learning University of Education, Winneba © IDeL - UEW All rights reserved including translation. No part of this publication may be reprod...

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Written by: J. O. Mankoe Anthony Mensah Institute for Distance and e-Learning University of Education, Winneba © IDeL - UEW All rights reserved including translation. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or duplication in any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the Director, IDeL, University of Education, P. O. Box 25, Winneba. School Administration and Supervision Published 2015 by The Institute for Distance and e-Leraning University of Education P O Box 25 Winneba Tel: (0)3323 22 046 Fax: (0)3323 22 497 Email: [email protected] © Institute for Distance and e-Learning, 2016 ISBN xxxxxxx Credits Graphic Design and Layout: E Owusu S Kwesi Nyan Printed in Ghana: UEW Printing Press P O Box 25 Winneba, Ghana  U NI T C 1 FOUNDATIONS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION ON S TENT INTRODUCTION 12 SECTION 1 DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 14 Primary school – what it is 14 Objectives of primary school education 14 Inquiry and creative skills 15 Personal and social attitudes 15 Administrative structure of primary education in Ghana 16 Minister of Education Institutional Level 16 Director-General – Managerial level 16 District Director of Education 16 Circuit Supervisor 16 Head of school 16 Classroom teacher 16 SECTION 2 ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION IN THE SCHOOL I 24 Making effective decisions 24 Adopting principles of management 26 Obtaining adequate funds 28 Sources of school funds 28 Obtaining educational infrastructure 28 Supervising teachers and students 28 Involving stakeholders 28 SECTION 3 ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION IN THE SCHOOL II 34 Dealing with school discipline 34 How a head of teacher and staff can enhance discipline 35 In-service education for teachers 36 Conditions of service of teachers 38 Adopting a policy of cost-sharing 39 Constant review of the curriculum 42 SECTION 4 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL HEAD I 44 Administration versus management 44 Planning 45 Organizing 45 Staffing 45 Directing 45 Controlling 45 SECTION 5 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL HEAD II 52 Coordinating 52 Reporting 54 Budgeting 56 Managing resources 57 SECTION 6 TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN GHANA 62 Education Ordinances and committees of pre-independence era 62 The accelerated development plan of 1951 63 The Education Act of 1961 64 Education Review Committee of 1967 64 The Dzobo Committee of 1972 64 4 UEW/IEDE  U NI T LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION C 2 ON S TENT INTRODUCTION 70 SECTION 1 POWER AND LEADERSHIP 72 Leadership and influence 72 Types of power 72 Coercive power 73 Reward power 73 Factors of effective leadership 74 Positive personal qualities and interpersonal relationships 76 Positive personal qualities 76 Positive interpersonal relationships 76 SECTION 2 LEADERSHIP STYLES 80 Meaning of leadership style 80 Autocratic style 80 Advantages of the autocratic style 81 Disadvantages of the autocratic style 82 Democratic style 82 Advantages of the democratic style 83 Disadvantages of the democratic style 83 Laissez-faire style 84 SECTION 3 LEADERSHIP: ROLES AND PERCEPTIONS 86 Role versus perception 86 Role and leadership 86 Leader behaviour 87 Tips for leaders 87 SECTION 4 MOTIVATION 94 What is motivation? 94 Basic characteristics of motivation 95 Types of motivation 97 Need theories and motivation 98 List of needs 98 Human needs and motivation 98 Job satisfaction and productivity 98 Factors that contribute to productivity 98 SECTION 5 DATA FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 106 Definition of data 106 Types of data 106 Ways of generating data 108 Data collection through records and documents 108 Guidelines for data gathering 110 Importance of data 110 The computer and data bank 110 SECTION 6 FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION: BUDGETING AND FINANCIAL CONTROL 114 Meaning of financial administration 114 Administration and finance 114 Principles of financial administration 115 Budget and budgeting 116 The budget document 118 Purposes and uses of a budget 119 Financial control 120 UEW/IEDE 5  U NI T C 3 INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION ON S TENT INTRODUCTION 124 SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF SUPERVISION 126 Case study 126 What supervision of instruction is? 127 Dimensions in an educational enterprise 128 Who is a supervisor? 129 SECTION 2 OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION 132 The need for instructional supervision 132 Objectives of instructional supervision 133 SECTION 3 OPERATION OF SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 140 Principles governing the operation of instructional supervision 140 The organisation of instructional supervision 141 Supervision of instruction at the school level 141 Assisting tasks of the supervisor 141 Linking tasks of the supervisor 141 SECTION 4 INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION AT THE CLASSROOM LEVEL 146 Using observation as a tool for instructional supervision in the classroom 146 Elements of classroom observation instrument 147 Observation of broad range of factors 147 Using the ideal state as yardstick 147 Clinical supervision 147 Clinical supervision versus traditional supervision 147 What is clinical supervision? 147 Analysis and strategy 147 SECTION 5 PROBLEMS OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION IN GHANA 156 Indefinite location of authority and responsibility 156 Lack of time for supervision 157 Negative attitude of teachers toward supervisors 159 Lack of mobility on the part of supervisors 159 Solving the problems of instructional supervision 160 SECTION 6 MANAGING INSTRUCTIONAL TIME 162 What instructional time means 162 Syllabus and scheme of work 163 Lesson notes 163 Regulations on instructional time 164 Planning the school timetable 164 Lack of mobility on the part of supervisors 159 Solving the problems of instructional supervision 160 6 UEW/IEDE  U NI T PARTNERSHIP IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION C 4 ON S TENT INTRODUCTION 170 SECTION 1 SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS 172 School community versus school's community 172 School-community relations what is it? 173 Benefits of school-community relations 174 Barriers to school-community relations 175 SECTION 2 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS 180 Principles underlying good school-community relations 180 Practical ways through which the school can relate with the community 182 SECTION 3 DECENTRALISATION: TYPES AND BENEFITS 186 What is decentralisation? 186 Forms of decentralisation 187 Benefits of decentralisation 187 SECTION 4 EFFORTS AT DECENTRALISATION IN GHANA 192 Problems of decentralisation 192 SECTION 5 TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ADMINSTRATION 198 What is participation? 198 Importance of participation 198 Barriers to effective participation 199 Modes of participation 200 Stages in effective delegation 201 Teamwork 202 Types of teams 202 Empowerment 202 SECTION 5 TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ADMINSTRATION 198 What is participation? 198 Importance of participation 198 Barriers to effective participation 199 Modes of participation 200 Stages in effective delegation 201 Teamwork 202 Types of teams 202 Empowerment 202 UEW/IEDE 7 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION COURSE INTRODUCTION Hello, it is my pleasure to welcome you to this course, School Administration and Supervision. This is one of the very interesting education courses you will take as part of your One Year Diploma in Basic Education and Post-Graduate Diploma in Education programme. The purpose of this course is to assist you to become conversant with some of the crucial administrative and supervisory practices in a school as you go about your daily job as a professional teacher. The course is an avenue through which I shall discuss several issues on how a school head together with his/her team of teaching staff and other stakeholders in education can work as one team so that the school can achieve its goal. As you are aware, the goal of a school is to provide a sound and firm educational foundation to students for their life-long education. Laying this foundation obviously requires very competent teachers for which reason you are being trained in the various education courses. To perform your function well, you need to be aware of the necessary human and material resources in a school, how they can be obtained, how they are equitably distributed, the various players and how they should interact with each other. These are the main concerns of this course. I will try to lead you through lively discussions and I have no doubt that you will enjoy the lessons. After going through this course you will be able to: —· describe the foundations of school administration and how the administrator can function effectively —· explain the importance of leadership in school —· explain the concept of instructional supervision in the school and its role in running the school —· identify the various partners in school —· explain the policy of decentralization and how it is used in managing education at all levels 8 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION This page is left blank for your notes AND SUPERVISION UEW/IEDE 9 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION COURSE PLANNER You may use this page as your course planner. Write the dates that you expect to complete each unit in this course. When you actually complete a unit, write the date you completed it. This will help you to keep track of your work and monitor your progress throughout this course. Planned completion date Actual completion date Unit1: Unit 2: Unit 3: Unit 4: Unit 5: Unit 6: 10 UEW/IEDE  U NI T SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION C 1 ON S TENT FOUNDATIONS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECTION 1 DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 14 SECTION 2 ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION IN THE 24 SCHOOL I SECTION 3 ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION IN THE 34 SCHOOL II SECTION 4 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL HEAD I 44 SECTION 5 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL HEAD II 52 SECTION 6 TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN GHANA 62 the adinkra symbol used in the UEW crest Mate masie I have heard what you have said UEW/IEDE 11 XXXXXXX 1 FOUNDATIONS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION UNIT Unit X, section X: XXXXXXX Welcome to Unit 1 of this course. This unit which deals with Foundations of School Administration is aimed at laying a strong foundation for the three other units. In this unit you will examine the functions of the school head after you have defined clearly what a primary school is and have discussed its structure. You will also discuss ways of achieving effective management in the school and have the opportunity to trace the changes that have taken place in school administration from the colonial days to the present time. As you progress in the unit, I am sure that you will obtain a better understanding of the work of a head of school and therefore appreciate the challenges and thus prepare yourself to face them when the opportunity comes. By the end of the unit you will be able to:  describe strategies which a head can adopt to achieve effective management of his/her school  differentiate between administration and management  list at least six administrative functions of a head  explain each of the six administrative functions to a newly appointed head of a school  identify the various Education Ordinances that were passed in the colonial days, and give the salient points of each  describe the impact of the Accelerated Development Plan of 1951 and the Education Act of 1961 on education  list the various Education Review Committees that have been appointed since independence and give the highlights of the recommendations of each of them I assure you that you will enjoy reading this unit. 12 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION This page is left blank for your notes AND SUPERVISION UEW/IEDE 13 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL UNIT AND 1 SECTION SUPERVISION 1 Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration ADMINISTRATION Welcome to the first unit of this course which focuses on the foundations of school administration. I assure you, you will certainly enjoy the lessons. As primary school is the very first level of educational administration in Ghana, we will begin our discussion by looking at what primary school is. Let’s go on straight to Section 1 where I will discuss what a primary school is. After going through this section you should be able to:  explain what a primary school is  state the objectives of primary school education  describe the administrative structure of a primary school Primary school – what it is You were a student in a primary school some years ago and have probably once taught or are teaching in a primary school now. If this statement is true then you know what a primary school is. Let us, all the same, refresh our minds about this level of education. Primary school refers to the first segment of the first cycle of education for six- to eleven-year-old students. It consists of the first six years of the nine- year free, compulsory, universal basic education in Ghana. The primary school is expected to lay a solid foundation for the three-year compulsory junior secondary school as well as all subsequent levels of education. Objectives of primary school education Now that we have demarcated the level of the primary school, let’s examine the objectives of primary school education. These objectives will give us the background understanding for the administration and supervision of the primary school. The Dzobo Committee in its report of February 1974 made a number of proposals and recommendations which, among other things, sought to make the primary education system more meaningful and relevant to Ghana’s socio-economic and political aspirations. The new system recognized the importance of a sound foundation of education right from the kindergarten level. The committee proposed that primary education should be general in nature and the aim should be to expose the child to many subject areas from which a choice can be made as the child climbs up the academic ladder. Let us now look at the objectives of primary school education. Again the report of the Dzobo Committee will help us. The report stated the objectives as 14 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration AND SUPERVISION  Numeracy, ie. ability to count and use numbers  Socialization, ie. the development of inquiry and creative skills and attitudes that will enable the individual to be an effective citizen. Inquiry and creative skills Note also that the primary school, according to the Dzobo Committee, is expected to develop some important inquiry and creative skills in the child. Examples of these two types of skills are: Inquiry skills  ability to observe  ability to collect information  ability to analyse information  ability to hypothesize  ability to develop working principles  ability to test and evaluate  ability to apply principles to new situations Creative skills  manipulating skills: use of tools, etc  body movement including poise, balance, games, dance  aesthetic skills: drama, art, music, home economics. Personal and social attitudes In addition to the inquiry and creative skills, the primary school is also aimed at developing a number of personal and social attitudes in the students eg:  appreciation of the need for change and adaptation to change  a desire for self-improvement  appreciation and practice of the things which are worthy of preservation  appreciation of the importance of cooperation and tolerance and interdependence of people of different nations and cultures  healthy living habits including appreciation of the need for and use of leisure  respect for the truth  the habit of asking questions and keenness to find things out for themselves  acquisition of knowledge, skills and pre-vocational experience that will enable them to discover their aptitudes and potentialities and a longing for further improvement; and  appreciation of the dignity of work and interdependence of all workers Carefully think about these skills, abilities and attitudes to be developed in the primary school child and you can imagine the weight of the responsibilities placed on the shoulders of all those who have a part to play UEW/IEDE 15 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration in educating him or her. All in all, the primary school in Ghana has been designed to develop an appreciation for learning, an intellectual curiosity, and a desire for life-long learning. The achievement of these laudable aims, objectives, skills and attitudes in the primary school depends on the effective participation of all stakeholders. The immediate responsibility, however, lies with the school head working hand-in-hand with various types of administrators both in an out of the school. Administrative structure of primary education in Ghana Let us now consider the administrative structure of the primary school system in Ghana. In the primary school environment, the head of school appears to be the sole administrator and therefore carries the burden of running the day-to-day operation of the school. This is not really the case. The head of school is only the school-based administrator who runs the school with delegated responsibilities to his/her teaching staff. The head of school runs the primary school directly or indirectly with external bodies and officers. Hierarchically, the administrative structure that operates the primary school is as follows:  Minister of Education  Director-General  Divisional or Regional Director of Education  District Director of Education  Assistant Director of Education  Principal Superintendent  Senior Superintendent  Superintendent  Assistant Superintendent  Head of school  Teacher We can categorize the above structure into three man hierarchical levels of the administration of the primary school: Level Location Function Institutional Ministry of Education Goal setting/policy making Managerial Ghana Education Policy implementation Service/Institutional Administration Head Technical Plant Classroom Teaching You may have noticed that among the various officers who are involved in administration and supervision of the primary school the head of school is quite near the bottom. This low position of the head of school in the hierarchy does not play down the important role he/she should play. Indeed, 16 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration AND SUPERVISION if the head of school should be found ineffective and inefficient, all efforts of the officers higher in the hierarchy would be fruitless. Let us at this point examine the role of some officers in the hierarchy more closely. Minister of Education Institutional Level At the institutional level in the administration of the primary education, the Minister of Education is placed at the top. He represents the political head of the entire educational system. He is the mouthpiece of the government in matters of education. Asiedu-Akrofi (1978) points out that the Minister of Education is the person who has to be persuaded if any group of people wants to influence the government’s educational policy. Let me give you a typical example of what Asiedu-Akrofi is talking about. In the teaching of various subjects in the primary school, the government’s policy since Ghana’s independence has been the use of Ghanaian language as a medium of instruction in the first three years, ie from P1 to P3. From P4 onwards, English language becomes a medium of instruction. Recently, however, the Minister of Education decided to change the policy so that English language becomes the medium of instruction right from P1. Several groups of people including lecturers, head of schools and teachers, however, disagree with this new policy. They prefer the old policy and it is the Minister of Education who has to be convinced of the effectiveness of the old policy and inappropriateness of the new policy. Activity 1.1 1. Consider the pros and cons of the language policy (both old and new) in the primary school. Old Language Policy Pros Cons New Language Policy Pros Cons UEW/IEDE 17 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration 2. Which of the two language policies would you consider more effective in the primary school? Give reasons: ………………………………………….…………………………………… …………………………………………….………………………………… ……………………………………………….……………………………… ……………………………………………….……………………………… 3. Identify some policies affecting primary education that have generated public debate for some time now. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. Let me add that while the Minister of Education formulates policies for the primary education system, the Director-General of the Ghana Education Service (GES) is the one who implements the policies. He/She does this with his/her team of educational administrators including the primary school head of school. Remember that the Ministry of Education (MOE) has a number of bodies which implement policies. These are: The Ghana Education Service with various Divisions such as Curriculum Research and Development, Secondary, Girl Child, Basic Education, Human Resource Development, and Teacher Education. Other bodies that operate under the auspices of the MOE are:  West African Examinations Council  Ghana Library Board  Institute of Languages  Bureau of Ghana Languages  National Service Secretariat Activity 1.2 With a group of three or four students, discuss the role of each Division of GES in the administration of primary education in Ghana. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. Director-General – Managerial level As noted in our previous discussion, the main organization charged with the management of primary education is the Ghana Education Service with the Director-General as the head. The Director-General ensures that national 18 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration AND SUPERVISION education policies are effectively executed. The Director-General performs his/her functions through all the other officers down the hierarchy. Of these officers, the District Director of Education deserves special mention as the officer who is directly responsible for the administration of all primary schools in the district. District Director of Education Remember that the primary school head interacts mainly with the District Director and his/her officers in the District Directorate. Under the current administrative structure, the District Director is the supreme head of education in the district. Within the decentralisation policy, he can formulate and implement educational policy decisions for the primary school. These policies must, however, be consistent with the overall educational policy framework of the Ministry of Education. The District Director thus has the overall responsibility for providing office- based administration and supervision for the primary school. He is assisted in his administrative functions by four assistant directors (usually referred to as the frontline Assistant Directors) responsible for:  Personnel and manpower  Administration and finance  Statistics  Supervision In addition to the assistant directors, other officers are appointed to take charge of science, mathematics, physical education, music and dance, Ghanaian language and culture, technical education, agriculture etc. A Primary School Coordinator is appointed to coordinate activities in all primary schools in a district. Every district education office has a number of Circuit Supervisors attached to it who interact regularly with head of schools and teachers in their circuit. Circuit Supervisor I hope you have followed the discussions so far. Let us now consider the role of the Circuit Supervisor. This position was created to provide more effective management in the primary school. The circuit supervisor who should have a rank not below Principal Superintendent is appointed to provide closer supervision of primary schools. To perform their function effectively, they are actually required to live within his circuit. They are also provided with a means of transport in the form of motor bicycles. Once appointed, circuit officers are assigned to work in mapped areas of not more than 20 schools. Overall, the circuit supervisor performs the following roles:  Curriculum adviser and teacher supporter UEW/IEDE 19 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration  Evaluator of teaching and learning  Supporter of teachers and school heads through professional guidance and advice  Critical friend of school heads and teachers  Maintenance of long term relationships with heads and teachers We have looked at the functions of the various non-school-based officers who play important roles in the administration of primary school within the district. Let us now look at the role of the Head of school who is based at the school. Head of school The head of school’s main role is to provide school-based management and supervision. The primary school head of school is assisted by an assistant head of school. Every competent head of school adopts some management techniques for administering his/her school effectively. These techniques include:  involving teachers and students in school administration;  organizing inservice training for teachers;  ensuring discipline among teachers and students;  holding staff meetings;  mobilizing the community to take part in the development of the school;  helping staff and students to solve problems;  framing school policy and being responsible for the conduct, efficiency and tone of the school;  acting as an intermediary between the school and its authorities;  supervising all activities in the school;  ensuring adequate staffing of the school;  procuring curriculum for the school; and  procuring necessary materials and equipment for the school. In conclusion, the head of school can hardly succeed in his administrative tasks without the cooperation of others. In particular, the classroom teacher plays an indispensable role as we shall see soon. Activity 1.3 Compare and contrast the supervisory roles of the circuit supervisor and the head of school. Circuit Supervisor Head of school 20 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration AND SUPERVISION Finally, in this section, let us examine the role which the classroom teacher plays in the management and supervision of the primary school. Classroom teacher Teachers are those who operate the technical plant (the school building and what goes on inside and outside it) everyday. In spite of the lapses in official treatment and public attitude towards the teaching profession, there is a continuous drive for public recognition of teaching as a profession. Whether the teacher is properly accorded recognition, he/she is indispensable in the organisation and supervision of the primary school. The teacher performs many administrative functions including the following:  maintaining order and being adequately acquainted with all that is happening in his/her classroom and indeed the school as a whole;  carrying out definite co-curricular duties assigned to him/her by the head of school;  giving reasonable assistance to young and inexperienced colleagues;  ensuring that students are properly admitted to the class;  keeping record of progress of children;  taking care of all equipment and books supplied to the class;  carrying out recommendations made in inspection reports. Activity 1.4 In the primary school, students are quite young but can be assigned some responsibilities both in the school and in the classroom. Identify some of the various responsibilities you would recommend to be assigned to students. School Responsibilities Classroom Responsibilities Primary school refers to the first segment of the first cycle of education for six- to eleven-year-old students. It consists of the first six years of the nine- year free, compulsory universal basic education. The primary school is expected to lay a strong foundation for the three-year junior secondary school as well as all subsequent levels of education. Primary education is general in nature and aims at exposing the child to many subject areas from which choices can be made for higher level of education. UEW/IEDE 21 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure of school administration Objectives of primary school education, according to the Dzobo Committee of 1974, are acquisition of numeracy and socialisation of the individual The primary school also aims at helping the student to acquire inquiry and creative as well as personal and social attitudes. In the administrative structure of primary education, the Head of school is the first-line administrator of the primary school. Administratively, the Minister of Education who is the policy maker and the Director-General of the GES who is the policy implementer lie at the top of the hierarchy. The head of school with a team of teachers lies at the bottom of the hierarchy. In the implementation of national education policies and decisions, the most important level is the school plant. The head of school adopts some important techniques to manage the school with the teachers who discharge many responsibilities. 22 UEW/IEDE  SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 1: Definition and structure This page is of leftschool for your notes AND SUPERVISION blank administration UEW/IEDE 23 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 2: Achieving ACHIEVING effective EFFECTIVE management andAND MANAGEMENT supervision in the SUPERVISION UNIT AND 1 SECTION SUPERVISION 2 school I IN THE SCHOOL I Welcome to Section 2 of Unit 1. In Section 1, I examined the concept of primary school and the structure of primary school administration. I hope that you worked systematically through the first section. In this section, I will examine some of the ways through which you can achieve effective management and supervision in the school. By the time you finish studying this section, you will be able to explain some of the ways through which the head can manage the school effectively including dealing with school discipline The number of strategies or ways in which a head of school together with other stakeholders in education can achieve effective management is infinite. I am going to identify and discuss six of these ways in this section. After that I shall ask you also to identify and discuss some other ways by which you can manage a school. The ways I will discuss are:  Making effective decisions.  Adopting principles of management.  Obtaining adequate funds to replenish diminishing resources.  Obtaining educational infrastructure, equipment and materials.  Supervising teachers and students.  Involving stakeholders. Making effective decisions Ponder over the following questions:  When do you, as a teacher or even a student, make decisions? How do you make decisions?  Do you make decisions impulsively and act on them on the spur of the moment?  If you were a head of school and had to make decisions that would affect your teachers or parents, would you involve them?  Do you carefully identify the causes of a problem, look out for possible solutions and carefully choose the best option?  Do you simply choose a solution because you believe it is the best option and then impose it on teachers and parents? By asking you this series of questions, I am trying to impress upon you that you should never take impulsive decisions, except perhaps in cases of emergency. Impulsive decisions are often irrational and usually fail to deliver good results. What then is decision-making, especially as they affect the administration of a school? 24 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school I AND SUPERVISION To decide is to come to a resolution as a result of consultations. Decision- making is the selection of a course of action from available alternatives (Richman & Farmer, 1975:184). Whenever there is more than one way of doing things, a decision is needed. Thus there is always a need for the school administrator to adopt a systematic approach to making decisions in order to resolve the school’s problems. While there are a few exceptions to this rule, the best option is for the head of school and his/her staff to be systematic or rational. It is also necessary to point out that unless a decision has generated into action, it is not a decision. Also, unless a decision involves a systematic process, it is irrational. It is also irrational when the decision is based on the decision-maker’s whim. Guidelines for making rational and systematic decisions Now let us go through the following eight specific steps suggested by Bittel (1985: 140) which a head of school with his/her staff can follow to make rational or systematic decisions  State the problem clearly and specifically. Avoid a vague statement like, we have a problem in the community. Instead, narrow it down to What can we do to prevent people from encroaching on the school land? for example  Collect all information relevant to the problem. Concentrate on your school instead of going far into the community. Collect data that will provide some insight into the processes, materials and equipment that may be required.  List as many possible causes of the problem as you can think of. The existence of a problem implies a gap between the expected and actual conditions. What happened to cause the gap?  Select the cause or causes that seem most likely. Do this through a process of elimination.  Compile as many solutions for removing the causes of the problem as you can.  Evaluate the pros and cons of each proposed solution. As a head of school, you should be aware that while many solutions are good, some are better than others.  What does each solution mean?  Is it cheaper? Faster? Surer? More participatory?  Is it more in line with the school’s policy? To obtain valid answers to each of these questions, you must make judgements based on facts. Consult anyone who may be able to offer specialized options about the criteria you have chosen.  Choose the solution you consider best. Choose the solution after you have weighed all the chances of success against the risks of failure.  Spell out a plan of action to carry out your solution, ie. implement your decision. Specify what will be done, how, when and by whom it will be done. How much money will be spent and the source of the money. What is the deadline? UEW/IEDE 25 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school I Activity 2.1 1. Present the rational decision making model described above in a flow chart: 2. As the head of school of a primary school, you are encountering the three problems described below. Using the rational decision making model, state the specific steps you will take to arrive at a solution to each problem. Discuss your procedure with three colleagues of yours. a. You have observed that some unauthorised people in the community have been encroaching upon the school’s land. It has no fence to ward off intruders. b. Many parents have not paid their children’s fees and auditors from the District Office have threatened to surcharge you. c. A good number of teachers have become habitual absentees or late comers. All your admonitions have fallen on deaf ears. ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… Adopting principles of management Let us now consider another way in which a head of school can manage a primary school. This is the use of principles of management. As a head of school who has to deal with members of staff, students, parents or others, you have to be impartial. You have to be consistent in all situations. This means that you have to adopt some principles to manage your school. Now, what are principles? Principles are basic guidelines or approaches that give direction to people in the ways they are expected to operate in their field of work. These guidelines can be translated into instructions which are used to teach others how to act in a particular situation. These instructions are prescriptive and normative in the sense that they prescribe what an administrator, manager or supervisor such as the head of school of a school, a district director or a circuit officer should do. Principles thus help head of schools or any other officers to handle problems they encounter in their work situations. Let me point out, however, that some critics of the principles approach reject the idea because, according to them principles tell administrators or managers one best way to do anything. They argue that there are conditions where a principle may work and others where it won’t; and that not all cases in the work situation would fall within the guidelines prescribed. All the same, principles are useful guides to action. They give the head of school some place to start when faced with a problem and, if they are not viewed as rigid requirements, they can be very helpful in finding a solution. 26 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school I AND SUPERVISION Now that we have looked at the nature of principles of management, let us consider some specific ones. Suggested principles for a head of school Under a well-structured primary school, the following principles must prevail:  Time and motion: Each task in the school must be carried out in a way that minimizes time and effort. A teacher must effectively complete his/her syllabus within the required period.  Division of labour and functional specialization: Organizational tasks in the school are divided into special areas. Individuals (teachers, for example) must be assigned to tasks according to their training, skill and experience. The rationale behind the division of labour is that the varied tasks to be performed in a school, for example, are too complex for everyone to learn with equal competence. The division of tasks, therefore, results in greater efficiency for the entire organization.  Hierarchical structure: Authority in an organization is distributed in a pyramidal configuration; each official is responsible for his or her subordinate’s actions and decisions. For example, the District Director of Education (DDE) is at the helm of educational matters in the district. Working directly under the DDE are the four frontline Assistant Directors (ADs). The DDE is therefore directly responsible for the actions and decisions of the frontline ADs. One of the ADs, AD Supervision, is directly responsible for the actions of the Circuit Supervisors (CSs) in the district. Each CS, in turn, is responsible for the actions of the head of schools in his/her circuit.  Control by rules: All official decisions and actions, eg, by the District Director, Assistant Directors, Circuit Supervisors, or Heads of schools, are directed by codified rules. This principle ensures uniformity, predictability and stability in the entire education district or school.  Impersonal relationships: Impersonal relationships among all officers in the district eliminate purely personal, emotional and irrational behaviour. This situation establishes control over people and their activities in the organization more efficiently. All heads of schools and teachers are then subject to strict and systematic discipline in the conduct of their jobs.  Career orientation: In the school, as in all other organizations, employment should be based on expertise. Promotion should be given according to seniority and/or merit; salary should be tied to rank in the hierarchy. The individual worker should always feel free to resign and retirement provisions should exist.  Standardization of tasks: Various tasks should be broken into component parts to allow for routinized performance. In the school the main task of teaching is done according to classes or subjects and individual teachers are assigned to them. Yet when it comes to tasks like UEW/IEDE 27 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school I sports and games, entertainment, gardening, music, sanitation, they should be broken into component parts for better performance.  Unity of command: In an individual organization like the primary school, decision should be centralized with responsibility flowing from the top to the bottom for proper coordination. Directions should come from the heads office to all teachers and to all students where appropriate.  Span of control: Unity of command and coordination are possible only if each superior at any level has a limited number of subordinates (five to ten) to direct. This limit is very crucial in large and complex institutions as the universities and large senior secondary schools or colleges. In the school the head with five or so teachers should find that manageable.  Uniqueness of function: One department of the school should not duplicate the functions performed by another. In the school, the normal practice is to assign areas like sports and entertainment, gardening, music, or first aid to individual teachers who also appoint leaders from the learners to assist. Thus no assigned task should be performed by another group. Duplication and waste of effort and scarce resources are therefore avoided.  Formal organization: The focus of analysis should be on the official organizational blueprint. Thus in determining the quality of a particular primary school, for example, attention should be placed on the detailed plan and formal practices in the school. Semi-formal and informal structures such as unofficial friendly groups formed by the teachers or students are not analyzed. Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, proposed some of the most enduring principles to be followed by the administrator or manager. The school head should do well to adhere to those principles. A school head should:  have a thorough knowledge of his/her personnel – both superiors and subordinates  eliminate incompetence.  be well-versed in the agreements binding the school and its employees.  set a good example.  conduct periodic inspections of his/her school and use summarized reports to further improve the school.  bring together teachers by means of in-service training at which attention should focus on concerted efforts by all teachers to improve administration and supervision of teaching and learning.  not become engrossed in minute details of school work.  aim at fostering unity, initiative and loyalty among teachers and students. 28 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school I AND SUPERVISION Activity 2.2 The head of school, among other things, should eliminate incompetence and set a good example. Give specific examples of: a. How a head of a school can eliminate incompetence? ……………………………………….……………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. b. How a head of school can set good examples? ……………….……………………………………………………………… ……………….……………………………………………………………… …………………….………………………………………………………… ……………………….……………………………………………………… Obtaining adequate funds Let us now turn our attention to what may be considered the most important resource of the effective head of school – funds. Every task performed in the school depends on funds. It means therefore that for every task there should be adequate funds. Consider the following questions:  Can you think of any school task that may not require money to perform?  In your experience, have there been adequate funds for any school to do the things they want to do? If no, why not?  Is it possible at all for a school to generate adequate funds? If no, why? If yes, how? Currently how does a primary school obtain funds? Sources of school funds The sources of primary school funds include:  PTA contributions  Internally-generated funds through various activities by children, eg sale of farm produce.  Imprest  School fees Can you add to the list of the sources of school funds? Apart from making efforts to obtain funds, the head must make efficient use of the money, ie obtain maximum benefit from the minimum amount spent on a project. UEW/IEDE 29 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school I The head should be personally responsible for all incomes and expenditures in the school. It is absolutely essential for him/her to demonstrate transparency and honesty in handling school funds. When a head abandons transparency and honesty, he/she destroys the good image that can be created in the minds of teachers and students. Thus the head should avoid all cases of embezzlement, misappropriation and misapplication. Activity 2.3 1. State reasons why some heads of schools embezzle school funds. 2. Suggest ways in which heads can overcome the temptation of embezzling funds. ………………………………………………………………………..……… ………………………………………………………………………..……… ………………………………………………………………..……………… ……………………………………………………………………………….. Obtaining educational infrastructure You have no doubt come across primary schools in dilapidated and terrible state. Some have dwarf walls of mud, or are constructed with bamboo or palm fronds. The fact to note is that many schools have become dilapidated through years of neglect as a result of our lack of the culture of maintenance. In such schools the day’s activities end as soon as it threatens to rain What do you think are the short and long term effects of dilapidated classrooms on management, teaching and learning? Let us make a list of what we would call adequate infrastructure, materials and equipment for a school. I suggest the following:  classroom blocks  a staff common-room.  head’s bungalow.  student accommodation  sports field for soccer, athletics, volley ball, well equipped and demarcated.  a spacious, airy and well-stocked library with plenty of sitting room.  a sizeable laboratory.  a large school farm.  a computer room.  adequate books and stationery to go round These are my suggestions; you may add your own suggestions to make the list more complete. 30 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school I AND SUPERVISION Activity 2.4 In Ghana, the social perception is that the provision of infrastructure for education is the responsibility of the Central Government. In recent years it has been amply demonstrated that this perception of the people is not realistic. State your proposals for providing the infrastructure we need in our primary schools ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… Supervising teachers and students In Unit 3 of this book, we have discussed supervision of instruction in detail. In this sub-section, let’s look at supervision under general administration and management. What are the concerns here? Under this supervisory function, the effective school head ensures that:  teachers and students attend school regularly and punctually; teachers and students who do not observe this regulation are given appropriate sanction. To enforce this regulation, teachers should mark the class attendance register on time; they themselves should sign the Staff Attendance Book as soon as they arrive at school.  the school – classrooms and entire compound – are absolutely clean and tidy.  teachers and students observe school rules and regulations.  teachers observe their code of ethics.  students have adequate supply of all educational inputs. Activity 2.5 Obtain a copy of the Teachers’ Code of Ethics from either your District Education Office or the nearest GNAT office. Make a list of five main points dealt with in the Teachers’ Code of Ethics and justify each of the five points. ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… Involving stakeholders Since a head of school and his/her team of teaching staff are deemed qualified enough to do their job as professionals, don’t you think they should be left alone to run the school? Do you think there is a need for others to be involved? UEW/IEDE 31 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school I Unit 4 will deal with the involvement of stakeholders in much more detail. At this early point, I only want to stress the importance of their involvement to achieve efficient management of the primary school. Activity 2.6 Make a list of stakeholders who, you believe, should be involved in running a school, and indicate areas in primary school management in which they may be involved. Remember to include areas like decision making, policy formulation, provision of resources, funding of school projects, and enforcing school discipline. ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… For what reasons should the stakeholders you have identified above be involved in school administration? One main reason is that two heads are better than one. The head cannot possibly have all the best ideas for running a school. The government also cannot provide all the needed resources. Can you add reasons of your own? Every competent head of a school aims at managing and supervising his/her school effectively to achieve its goals. In doing so, there are many administrative, managerial and supervisory strategies to adopt. These strategies are the ability to make strategic and systematic decisions with other participants in the school (teachers and learners), adopting principles of management to make the administration stable and predictable, using strategic means to generate funds to operate the school, ensuring that the school has adequate infrastructure, equipment and materials, ensuring that school rules are observed by teaching staff, students and even parents, and finally involving relevant stakeholders in managing the school. 32 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 2: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION notesI AND SUPERVISION school This page is left blank for your UEW/IEDE 33 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 3: Achieving ACHIEVING effective EFFECTIVE management andAND MANAGEMENT supervision in the SUPERVISION UNIT AND 1 SECTION SUPERVISION 3 school II IN THE SCHOOL II Well done for working successfully through the first two sections of Unit I. I now welcome you to Section 3. Achieving Effective Management and Supervision is such a broad topic that we have to continue dealing with it in this section. That does not even mean that we shall exhaust the topic under this section. There are numerous ways of managing the school and we are only touching upon some of the salient ones. By the time you finish studying this section, you will be able to  describe how to deal with school discipline  discuss how to organise in-service education for teachers  suggest ways of improving conditions of service of teachers  encourage schools to adopt a policy of cost-sharing.  discuss innovation/improvisation by teachers.  carry out constant review of the curriculum Dealing with school discipline To begin our discussion, let me draw your attention to something that has been occurring in our schools of late. I believe that you have heard or read from the newspaper about the father who marched furiously to a school and beat up a teacher who had caned his son for misbehaving at school! Incidents like this, which have occurred quite frequently in our schools of late, raise serious questions on school discipline.  Did the pupil deserve the punishment which incurred the fury of the father?  Did the teacher have the professional knowledge of effecting an appropriate corrective measure on the child?  Was the father ignorant of the teacher’s role in training the child in the way he should go?  Where does the head of school stand in all this – has he/she made his/her teachers know that he alone is permitted to use the cane according to official policy? You can ask many more questions involving school discipline. Discipline in this context means ensuring appropriate behaviour on the part of all individuals and groups who have to do with education in one way or the other. In every school discipline is necessary on the part of the  head of teacher  teachers  students  parents 34 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school II AND SUPERVISION How a head of teacher and staff can enhance discipline In what ways can a head of a school and staff enhance discipline in the school? A head of a school and staff can enhance discipline in their school by  preparing good lesson plans and submitting them early for vetting by the head.  attending school regularly and punctually as a habit.  comporting themselves in every aspect of their behaviour – dress, manners, speech, dealing with each other – so that they can serve as role models to the students.  formulating school rules and regulations in consultation with the students.  applying just sanctions against defaulting students in a transparent manner and in love so as to be accepted even by the culprits themselves.  encouraging parents to participate actively in running the school especially in those aspects that have implications for them.  demonstrating honesty in the use of school materials.  eschewing favouritism in dealing with the staff or the students.  avoiding amorous affairs with students of the school.  showing high respect for parents and demonstrating genuine concern about their problems by helping to solve them.  exhibiting deep interest in and commitment to the job of teaching.  setting up a standing Disciplinary Committee composed of people known to have exemplary character and who possess the ability to manage conflicts that may occur at any level in the school. Let me emphasize that effecting discipline in the school through the ways enumerated above is by no means an easy matter. And yet, an attempt to ignore even a single one of them can cause serious problems for school discipline. The question we can ask is: How else can a head manage and supervise his/her school effectively without due attention to these ways? Activity 3.1 1. Identify some of the ways in which a head of a school may exhibit preferential treatment in dealing with his /her teachers. 2. State some of the ways in which a teacher can discriminate against some of his/her students ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….…… ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………. UEW/IEDE 35 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school II In-service education for teachers In what ways do you think inservice education for teachers can help the head of teacher to manage his/her school effectively? By the way, what is inservice education? Inservice education is the type of education which teachers must continue to receive while they are on the job. It is education for teachers for as long as they remain in the teaching job. Teachers receive professional training for three years in the training college to qualify as professionals. This type of training is called preservice education. Let us ask ourselves: For how long can preservice education remain completely relevant after the student-teacher leaves the training college? Now pause, and think about the type of subjects you studied in the training college. The curriculum was based on the social, economic and political trends in the country. Consider whether society has remained the same or has undergone some changes since you left university. What changes have occurred? A teacher who left the training college some ten years ago but has not been undergoing inservice training would still be teaching those things he/she learned in training college. As a teacher he/she would be out of tune with the times. Thus the main purpose of inservice education is to keep the teacher in line with changes in the educational system. What forms does inservice training take? Forms of inservice training The Head of teachers’ Handbook (1994:216) has identified four main forms of in-service education: workshops, demonstrations, team teaching and joint-training. Let us look at each of these forms briefly. Workshops: Workshops are discussion sessions involving a number of participants on any educational matter of common interest. After the discussion among the participants, they are put in pairs, small groups or individuals to create something eg. an instructional material. Demonstrations: Demonstrations are organised as inservice education, for example, to enable some resource person to introduce a new method of teaching or the use of a new teaching device. In this case, it is ideal to make arrangement so that peer teaching can be done, ie some of the participants 36 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school II AND SUPERVISION can be used as students. Participants’ discussion of the teaching then follows. Topics that are suitable for demonstration include questioning techniques, preparation of materials for teaching various subjects, preparation of lesson plans, chalkboard skills and writing skills. Team teaching: Team teaching is an approach where two or three teachers come together to teach one topic either in turns or at the same time. The teachers focus on different tasks such as explaining an issue verbally, writing on a flip chart, using pictures at appropriate stages in a lesson. All these various tasks could take place at the same time. For a group of teachers to do team teaching successfully, they need to:  plan together to avoid repetition;  cooperate and work together as a team;  avoid contradictory comments;  explain and expand to support, supplement and complement each other’s ideas;  use their varied expertise to enrich the sessions;  use different methods Joint training: Joint training is a kind of inservice training in which head of teachers in the same area, town or village hold joint sessions for their teachers. This is an opportunity to tackle an issue of common interest to all the schools. Joint training can be held, for example, to discuss a new teaching method introduced by the GES. Joint trainig is sometimes called cluster-based inservice training. Let me emphasize that inservice training should be organized after class hours. The head or any of the teachers can be asked to lead a discussion on a topic of common interest to the staff as a whole. Advantages of joint training Let us look at some advantages of a joint training:  Teachers have an opportunity to share ideas with others.  Teachers have a larger group to share ideas with and to learn from.  It enables teachers to learn new things from other schools.  One resource person can work with several schools at the same time instead of being in different schools at different times.  Materials can be put to a more efficient use in the sense that they can benefit a large group.  Joint training sessions can pave the way for head of teachers to cooperate to establish a local inservice centre in one of the schools. UEW/IEDE 37 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school II Activity 3.2 Make a list of five topics you would like to be discussed at a joint training session. ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. I shall now examine the conditions of service teachers. Conditions of service of teachers Conditions of service refer to the professional and personal circumstances within which teachers work. For many years teachers have complained about the poor conditions under which they work. Time and again they have called on the central government to improve their work conditions. There is a strong belief that teachers would do a better job under improved conditions. Under improved conditions, it is hoped that primary school heads would manage their schools more effectively. It must be borne in mind, however, that improving teachers’ conditions of service lies largely outside the jurisdiction of the head of teacher. Let us now focus on conditions under which teachers are expected to work effectively.  Good classrooms with adequate furniture that receive regular maintenance.  Class enrolment of not more than 46 students.  Adequate textbooks, stationery, etc for every pupil.  Adequate quantities of teaching/learning materials as well as inputs for teachers to prepare their own teaching/learning materials.  Adequate remuneration and other fringe benefits such as allowances for rent, health and transport.  Avenues for professional advancement including opportunities for inservice training programs.  Promotion prospects that move according to laid down policies and not slowed down by official apathy.  Government loans to purchase means of transport at a low interest rate.  Good accommodation for head of teachers. The foregoing points refer to the conditions towards which teachers aspire. The central government and other stakeholders all agree in principle that in society’s own interest, the above conditions should be provided. The main problem has been the severe economic constraints facing the country. 38 UEW/IEDE  Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION school II AND SUPERVISION The teacher’s service conditions must, however, not be allowed to remain in its present poor state. They must continue to be on the agenda of the government until some solutions are found. Adopting a policy of cost-sharing The policy of cost-sharing in the provision of education at all levels has engaged the attention of Ghanaians for some time now. Cost-sharing refers to an arrangement under which the central government will pay some portion of the educational expenditure while the beneficiary pays the rest. Let us examine this policy as it affects the management of a primary school. For many years after Ghana’s independence, the central government was the sole provider of education at all three levels. We have reached a stage in the country’s development where it seems no longer feasible for the government to remain the sole provider. The policy of cost-sharing which students have always fought against is being gradually adopted at the secondary and tertiary levels. At the basic education (primary and junior secondary) level, the policy of free, compulsory universal basic education stipulates that education at this first level is free. It is free in the sense that the central government pays for all the cost involved. However, one big question on the lips of many parents is: Why are we being asked constantly to pay for fees eg textbook user fees and PTA levies? The fact is that tuition in the primary school is free as it is indeed at all levels of public education in Ghana. Ghana government pays all the teachers in public schools. However, there are some specific fees which parents pay on regular basis. Quite apart from that, parents buy uniforms, and also buy some textbooks and stationery mainly because the government’s supply is not adequate to supply to the students on one-to-one basis. Also, for some time, students were not allowed to take home the books supplied by the government. Therefore, parents who wanted their children to continue learning at home had to buy the books from the local market. At PTA meetings, teachers and parents come face to face with problems of lack of furniture, library books, laboratory materials, sports equipment, transport to convey items to and from school, drugs for first aid, and low teacher motivation resulting from inadequate remuneration. PTAs therefore often decide to make contributions to supplement teachers’ salaries, repair leaking roofs or buy locks for some doors and so on. These are contributions made with the approval of parents. They nonetheless add to the cost of education at the primary school. The government may be aware of these educational costs but since it cannot meet them it cannot stop PTAs from voluntarily deciding to bear them. UEW/IEDE 39 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Unit 1, section 3: Achieving effective management and supervision in the AND SUPERVISION school II The payment of these costs is the cause of the perception that education is not free at the primary school level. Head of teachers who desire to manage their schools effectively do not only welcome these PTA payments but actually sometimes propose them for consideration by the PTA. Sometimes, however, when parents complain about such PTA payments, the government sets in to impose a ceiling, p