Scar Reading 5-9 PDF

Week 5 Thursday Reading Afterlife and Death: An Islamic Perspective 1. Introduction - In Islamic teachings, belief about the afterlife is essential for strengthening one’s adherence and completion of the faith. - Muslims believe that when one dies he or she has an unremitting existence of sorts w...

Week 5 Thursday Reading Afterlife and Death: An Islamic Perspective 1. Introduction - In Islamic teachings, belief about the afterlife is essential for strengthening one’s adherence and completion of the faith. - Muslims believe that when one dies he or she has an unremitting existence of sorts while in the grave, thus entering into Al-Barzagh (Transitional World). - The Holy Qur’an (the religious text of Islam) and the Sunna (the body of traditional social and legal practice of the Islamic community) emphasize that after death, Allah (God) will reunite the soul with the body and humans will gather on the judgment day to find out who will be granted paradise including the Firdaws (the highest part of paradise) and who will be thrown into the hellfire (Smith and Haddad, 1981: p. 87). - Within this context, the physical existence of a Muslim on earth constitutes a set of trials and tests by means of which his or her final destiny is determined. - Thus, Muslims perceive death not only as the return of the soul to its creator, Allah, but also the passage to the hereafter. - Consequently, the inevitability of death and the afterlife is never far from a Muslim’s consciousness. - This notion reminds Muslims to place their existence, life, deeds, and interactions with others in perspective as they go through life in preparation for the hereafter. - For this reason, the concept of death and the afterlife is frequently emphasized in the Holy Qur’an. 2. Muslims’ notion of death - There are different accounts of what happens to the body upon death. - From the time of death to the Day of Judgment, Muslims believe the spirit remains in a state of ‘dreamless sleep,’ with the exception of possible visions of eternity (San Filippo, 2006). - Muslims also believe that the earthly lifespan of every individual is decided by Allah. - In Islam, it is ‘an article of faith that there is a Day of Resurrection and of Judgment on which the living and the dead shall answer for their thoughts and actions’ (Kassis, 1997: p. 56). - I provide a detailed narrative, from an Islamic perspective, about the transition a Muslim encounters when he or she dies and traverses into the hereafter. - I describe the different experiences of the grave the deceased endures at different phases, as each phase holds a special meaning and interpretation. - For instance, the Qur’an provides various death themes that contribute significantly to our understanding of and insights about the concept of death. - Yet, the concept was never defined; rather, it has always been portrayed in connection with other notions like those of life, resurrection, and even creation. - The Qur’an reads, "Every human being is bound to taste death: but only on the Day of Resurrection will you be required in full [for whatever you have done] – whereupon he that shall be drawn away from the fire and brought into paradise will indeed have gained a triumph: for the life of this world is nothing but an enjoyment of self-delusion." - What this Qur’anic verse suggests is that when a Muslim dies, her or his physical existence does not separate from his/her soul. - He or she, however, has to experience death. - Islamic teaching holds that death is perceived as a journey through a separate dimension of existence. - That existence starts at the grave where the deceased undergoes her or his first test that determines her or his fate in the afterlife, where one’s existence could either be in paradise or in the hellfire. - It is widely held in Islamic tradition that the grave represents not only the first stage where one’s faith is tested, but is also a setting that can serve as a punishment, a judgment, and a dreamless sleep. - To an outsider who is not familiar with the Islamic tradition, these different images evoke confusion and do not adhere to a particular set of conformity. - Yet, Muslims around the world understand that the deceased must, and will, go through all these phases in the grave to determine his or her postmortem fate. - These different descriptions vis-à-vis the grave experiences (punishment, sleep, test) do not represent a diversity of thought within the Muslim world. - Rather, they contribute to a coherent belief in which the deceased, once tested, is believed to be bound for paradise or hell. - Furthermore, for Muslims, caring for the corpse in various ways (for instance, through the ritual washing of the decedent) is mandatory, while also reflecting how much God values cleanliness. - For a Muslim, the family of the deceased wants to ensure their loved one is clean and ready for their journey into eternal life. - Muslim scholars describe how one does not cease to exist when in sleep, nor does the individual cease to exist in death. - Similarly, one comes back to life after waking up from his/her sleep, and thus it is believed that he or she will be awakened from death on the Day of Judgment. - A similar argument can be made when, for instance, the Qur’an highlights that Allah takes one’s soul at the time of his or her death the same way he takes it during his/her sleep. - Yet, the difference is that Allah restores the soul once one wakes up; however, Allah retains it upon his or her death (Halevi, 2011: p. 205). - What is interesting in this respect is that the inter-world prevents the dead from going back to earth. - There is a separation between the dead and the living not only in the material world, but also in time and space. - Halevi (2011) writes, "The Qur’anic al-barzakh probably formed an eschatological barrier preventing the dead sleepers from returning to earth. - Such a conception implies that the dead are separated from the living in the dimensions of both space and time. - One envisions an encounter between both parties only at the resurrection." - Within this context, Muslims perceive death as a stage in their existence that will eventually end on the physical level, but not on a spiritual one. - For this reason, Islam teaches Muslims not to fear death, but rather to embrace and welcome it. - The concerns about one’s fate in the afterlife, however, lie in whether one has lived a life free of moral corruption. - It is within this context that the Qur’an provides answers to the mystery of death – and life for that matter – by encouraging Muslims to live a spiritual life through the observance of Islamic practices (prayers, fasting, charity, etc.) in order to connect with Allah. - The central question that Muslim scholars, such as the noted theologian Al-Ghazali, address thus becomes: Will having a human conscience lead to a spiritually rich and meaningful life? - In his writings, al-Ghazali provided unique insights through his exegesis on a host of issues – including death – not only for Muslims, but for readers, writ large, to have a better comprehension and closer affinity with the sacred text of the Qur’an. - It is within this context (the question of the purpose of life and the meaning of death) that Islam seeks to remind Muslims that their existence is not based on accumulating materialistic wealth, but rather, furthering their understanding that the teaching of religion is part of human experience (Bensaid, 2015: p. 89). - Equally important, Muslims draw wisdom and lessons from the Qur’an, which presents different images and pictures of life and death. - These images are meant for Muslims to reflect upon their existence and realize that life does not exist through an empty vacuum of time and space. - Rather, it (life) has a purpose through which a Muslim’s fate in the afterlife is determined not only through his or her good deeds, but also by a merciful Allah (Smith and Haddad, 1981: p. 3). - In Islamic culture, the notions of the afterlife and death become a central part of the Muslim’s life and existence. - This notion is not only culturally accepted, but also religiously taught and embraced. - In Islam, for instance, when one dies, people who knew the deceased person will repeat the religious saying, ‘We belong to Allah and to Allah we return.’ - This saying offers a reminder to all adherents that Allah knows each one’s destiny. - This saying also serves as an affirmation of what is to come after we die. - Because of this, the notion of death is seen as part of one’s faith in Allah. - While the family of the deceased believes firmly that by enacting good deeds (readings from the Qur’an, serving funeral repast, etc.) on behalf of their loved one, the family refrains from acts that they believe might negatively impact the deceased’s fate in the afterlife, such as placing flowers at the gravesite. - Currently, there is a debate within the Muslim world as to whether the grave should even be marked. - While Muslim fundamentalists refuse such undertakings, young Muslims of today are challenging this tradition and defying this early practice of non-marking, especially when it comes to the grave of their parents and loved ones. - While the Qur’an indicates that every soul will go through the agony of death while transitioning to the afterlife, the debate about death in general is still limited. - The idea that death is the cessation of life is rare in the Muslim world. - Rather, a majority of Muslims believe that life is preparatory for the hereafter. - One argues that in the Islamic tradition, attending funerals, for instance, is considered meritorious even if one does not know the deceased because it reminds the visitor(s) that we all shall experience death, and that life is nothing but a transition to the hereafter. - Similarly, the visitation of the gravesite reinforces this notion of remembrance (Waugh, 1999: p. 17). - Muslim teaching also reaffirms the belief that when death comes, the family should not question the reason for the death or why the family has lost its loved one (Sajid, 2009). - Rather, they should conclude that the death of their loved one is the termination of his/her journey on earth. - The family is generally expected to embrace death since it is divinely willed by Allah. 3. Islamic perspectives regarding graves - By studying different descriptions of what the grave means in the Muslim tradition vis-à-vis the hereafter, we acquire a better understanding of the significance that Muslims place on the afterlife and burial process. - According to Islamic tradition, when a Muslim dies he or she is always buried, never cremated. - The grave is the first phase of the afterlife, and it is believed that the fate of the deceased is determined on that individual’s first night in the grave. - Most scholars agree that following death, the deceased lives in an imaginal realm known to Muslims as the ‘transitional world’ (some sacred texts refer to it as the inter-world in which souls take on shapes that symbolize their past deeds and misdeeds). - During this stage, the deceased’s good deeds they performed in their lifetime manifest themselves in comparable forms. - Al-Ghazali compares this phase of the deceased’s journey to a dreamless state. - Following his or her death, the deceased remains in the grave until Allah decides on the Day of Judgment. - During this phase (of remaining in the grave), the departed falls into an unconscious state in which the spirit of the dead can hear the cries and prayers of her or his loved ones, but the deceased is unable to respond to them (Moreman, 2010: p. 86). - Similarly, scholars compare the state of transitioning into the hereafter to that of waking up from sleep and not remembering the dreams we had. - One concludes the close similarities between the state of sleep and the transitional world. - The latter, itself, is a kind of waking up in relation to this world. - Hence some claim that the experiences of the inter-world are more real and intense than those of the present life, since the inter-world stands closer to the luminous center of the cosmos (Chittick, 1992: p. 137). - Muslims believe that the most frightening experience one encounters after death is when the two dread-inspiring and fearsome angels (Munkar and Nakīr) visit the soul to ask it about its belief in God, religion, and prophet. - Answering these three questions (Allah, Islam, Mohammed) respectively and correctly, the believing soul is immediately rewarded by having the grave expanded and illuminated until the Day of Resurrection. - It is believed that the fate of the deceased is determined when she or he answers the three fundamental questions correctly. - Muslims also believe that this postmortem experience provides the deceased with a clear indication of where he or she will spend their eternity. - The Muslim belief in the significance of this test inspires the family to perform many good deeds during the funeral rituals on behalf of the deceased. - The family will continue performing these good deeds during the forty-day grieving period. - These actions serve as a way to ask Allah to have mercy and provide the deceased with strength and guidance to correctly answer these three questions. - Depending on the outcome of this test of the grave, the deceased’s soul takes on shapes that symbolize either the good or bad deeds performed while alive. - Al-Ghazali writes, [o]n the Day of Resurrection, meanings are bared. Then form takes on the color of meaning. If the person had been dominated by passion and greed, he will be seen on that day in the form of a pig. If he was dominated by anger and aggressions, he will be seen in the form of a wolf. - Al-Ghazali’s usage of the ‘he will be seen’ is meant to be figurative speech that highlights how the deceased’s deeds reflect on him or her on the Day of Resurrection. - Al-Ghazali’s argument, though, reflects how Muslims, in general, believe that on the Day of Judgment, everyone’s deeds will be exposed. - In the Islamic faith, death is always welcomed since Muslims believe that the short stay on this earth is nothing but a preparation for eternal life. - ‘Whosoever has a loving desire to meet with Allah is one whom Allah has a loving desire to meet’ (Abū al-Laith al-Samarqandī, 1962 [reprint]: p. 197). 4. The Islamic notion of the afterlife and sectarian differences - In order to appreciate the description of the afterlife from an Islamic perspective, it is pivotal to understand the cosmological background of Islam. - Allah asserts in the Qur’an that he created the earth and seven heavens for his creatures. - Yet, these seven heavens, according to Jason Gray (2015), should not be thought of as seven distinct destinations for the dead. - Rather, the heavens are spatial-temporal regions distinct from earth (Islamic scholars debate the exact nature of each). - Yet, descriptions about paradise and hellfire abound. - These detailed descriptions are meant to 1) provide hope so Muslims engage in performing good deeds, and 2) instill fear so they avoid moral corruption. - To illustrate, paradise is described in detail with its eternal garden and streams of wine, milk, and honey. - Equally important, hell is described as a place that tortures and punishes the body and soul with boiling water to drink and scalding food to eat (Mufti, 2015). - Interestingly, scholars such as Khouj (1988) argue that the reason for providing such detailed descriptions of heaven in simple language is meant to contrast with more typical depictions of figurative heavens as large as the sky and earth combined (p. 61). - While Muslims are eager to learn more about the afterlife, paradise, hell, and other aspects of their existence after death, their intellectual curiosity seems limited when it comes to learning about the nature of Allah. - Certain Muslim theologians emphasize the existing distance, both spatial and temporal, that separates the physical world in which we live from that of the afterlife. - A similar argument can be made regarding the nature of Allah. - The Qur’an (42:11) stresses, ‘There is nothing like Him.’ - What it suggests is that Allah cannot be understood in terms of our physical world (Lange, 2015: p. 179). - Muslims believe that our mental capabilities of understanding phenomena of the nature of Allah, the afterlife, and so forth are very restricted. - Aside from presenting an overall picture about paradise and hell, contemporary Muslim writers are still hesitant or simply choose not to discuss the afterlife at all. - Rather, they are satisfied with the confirmation about the reality of the Day of Resurrection and human accountability based on one’s deeds. - Yet, there is no provision of a detailed discussion about the issue. - One potential explanation for this lack of discussion is that during the nineteenth century one branch of Islam, Sufism (which is understood as the inner, mystical, or psycho-spiritual dimension of Islam) focused mainly on the hereafter while turning away from life in this world (Smith and Haddad, 1981: p. 100). - Similarly, in the Muslim world, one should not question the Qur’an since the latter remains off limits to any type of questioning. - Yet, interpretations vary depending on where the political wind blows. - One does not have to look far to realize how suicide bombers, for instance, are convinced, based on interpretations provided by some very conservative Muslim scholars, of being granted paradise after blowing themselves up. - These interpretations argue that the martyr’s death is worth pursuing. - Yet, dying in Allah’s cause has not been well-defined or explained by these conservative scholars. - What is common among Muslims, however, is that, martyrs or not, there remains a fear about death. - Even for those who argue that those dying for Allah are at peace, death is not without fear. - The thinking is that those who suffer death in support of God’s cause are certain of his pardon for their faults, as the Qur’an suggests (O’Shaughnessy, 1969: p. 65). - Nonetheless, what is important to emphasize is that we should not assume that the latter assertion applies to suicide bombers who twist the Qur’an’s interpretation regarding martyrs in order to justify their barbaric acts. - The Qur’an reads, ‘If anyone slays a human being – unless it be [in punishment] for murder or for spreading corruption on earth – it shall be as though he had slain all mankind’ (Assad, 2003: pp. 171, 172). - What the latter Qur’anic verse suggests is that the interpretation of the Qur’an is used to justify whichever end one chooses. - Interestingly, according to Islamic teaching, no one has the right to take his or her own life. - Doing so, one is destined to go to hell. - Muslims are taught at an early age that it is Allah who gives life, and only Allah has the right to take it. - The debate within the Muslim world is still limited vis-à-vis how convinced some are regarding the descriptions of paradise, hell, and the afterlife, among others. - Yet, to what extent the characteristics described above are accurate, that decision rests with the adherents of the faith (Islam in this case), readers, and those with intellectual curiosity. - What is known is that Muslims from all walks of life, of all colors and persuasions, have, since Islam was founded in about 610 CE, perceived the afterlife with all its aspects to be true and real. - Some Muslims use the Qur’an as the foundation on which to base their judgment that ‘the life of this world is nothing but a passing delight and a play – whereas, behold, the life in the hereafter is indeed the only [true] life’ (Qur’an 29: 64). - Thus, to borrow from Le Goff, what is perceived by the Islamic eschatological imagination is ‘the whisper of a world more real than this one, a world of eternal truths’ (Lange, 2015: p. 16). - There remain many unanswered questions. - For instance, how can the Qur’an provide details about paradise and hell, but be very limited in describing the intermediate state between death and resurrection (al-Barzagh)? - Could this be part of why many Westerners do not have a full grasp of the elements that compose the Islamic eschatological picture? - It is possible! - What is interesting is that some of the scholarly Arabic sources of the eschatological manuals have not been translated. - The only available writings in English vis-à-vis the afterlife can be traced to the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent since the area was, historically, colonized by Great Britain. - This suggests that Muslim scholars might focus their efforts in translating materials regarding issues of the hereafter so that Western audiences have a better understanding and a clearer overview of what the ‘Transitional World’ is all about. - Under no circumstances am I suggesting that there is no Islamic scholarship about concepts of afterlife, soul, resurrection, and so forth. - Scholars such as Allamah Sayyid Muhammad and Husayn Husayni Tihrani have written extensively about the afterlife, the judgment day, and the destiny of the soul, and have explained the three stages of existence. - They argue, for instance, that the physical world we live in is one that consists of matter and nature. - The intermediate world, however, is one that is free from matter and does not emerge once the physical world ends. - Rather, it encompasses the material world. - The descriptions Muhammad and Tihrani provide vis-à-vis the realm of the soul suggest that this level is not only higher and more powerful than the other two, but also more mysterious. - They suggest that the world of the soul is not only beyond the ability of the human mind to fathom, but also goes beyond the limitation of time (Muhammad and Tihrani, 2015: pp. 327–228). - Within this context, Muslim scholars such as al-Ghazali stress that death is unpredictable and can happen at any time and, as such, Muslims should always be thinking in terms of doing good deeds. - Similarly, death is perceived as a gateway from this short, but mortal, existence to a life of immortality and eternity (Sajid, 2009). - This view regarding death suggests that notions of the afterlife affect death rituals and customs in Islam. - Before addressing the above assertion, it is crucial to highlight the difference between the two main sects of Islam (Sunnis and Shi’ites) vis-à-vis the afterlife debate. - While there are minor differences between the two when it comes to prayers, both are allowed to combine prayers when travelling. - However, Shi’a Islam allows the combination of prayers even when one is not travelling. - As a result, this practice has become a contentious issue among non-Shi’a religious schools. - Yet, when it comes to the notion of death and the afterlife, there is general consensus in both sects that the soul continues to exist after death. - Furthermore, a Muslim, whether a Sunni or Shi’ite, is provided an opportunity during her or his life on earth to impact and prepare the soul for better or worse, depending on the nature of her or his deeds (good or bad). - In one poignant passage, the Qur’an reads, ‘There comes a time when death approaches any of you, and he then says, “O my Sustainer! If only Thou wouldst grant me a delay for a short while, so that I could give in charity and be among the righteous”! (Assad, 2003: p. 989). - Still, there are major differences between Sunnis and Shi’ites when it comes to issues of, for instance, grave visitation, decoration of graves, and so forth. - For instance, Sunnis forbid the decoration of tombs and the conduct of ceremonies and memorials at graveyard sites. - Similarly, there is currently an ongoing debate regarding women’s visitation to the graves. - While in Sunni Islam this practice is strictly prohibited, it is widely accepted in Shi’ite Islam. - The latter perceives visiting and praying at the graves of innocent Imams as an emphatic religious ritual (and is a ritual that became popular at the turn of the sixteenth century when the Shi’ite denomination became the official religion in Iran; Aramesh, 2016: p. 20). - Equally important, funeral rituals in the Islamic tradition tend to expose differences and similarities between Shi’ites and Sunnis. - Of specific note in this context is the work of Philippe Ariès who, in addition to describing how attitudes toward death have evolved, addressed how both Sunnis and Shi’ites share a common view regarding death. - For instance, both Shi’ite and Sunnis agree that the process of embalming (preservation of a corpse from decay) is strictly haram (forbidden) in Islam. - This is because it is believed that any type of procedure on a corpse (including cryopreservation and autopsy) are contrary to Islamic teaching and laws. - Islam’s justification for forbidding this practice is that embalming leads to 1) delay in burial, 2) disrespect of the corpse, and 3) physical violation of the body. - Because of these reasons, Islamic tradition strictly emphasizes the need for the corpse to be buried as soon possible. - Like other religious matters where differences among religious sects are prevalent, apparently there are some misguided rulings that allow Muslims to embalm their dead under certain circumstances. - The argument is that if certain conditions exist, such as the presence of contagious diseases like typhoid, then allowing embalmment to prevent a greater harm is permissible, though not widely approved or practiced in the Muslim world. - It is also worth noting that in the Muslim world, burial rituals differ from one region to another. - The causes range from tribal influences and customs to religious ideology and culture. - These factors play a pivotal role in determining the components of these rituals. - To illustrate, I argue that the so-called Islamic dress, abaya (clothing that some Muslim women wear that covers the entire body from head to foot) is completely non-Islamic, as it is neither prescribed, nor required, according to the Qur’an or Sunna. - Rather, it is a tribal tradition limited to pockets living in the Muslim world – Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Yemen, and Pakistan, among others. - Similar regional preferences apply to funeral and burial rites and how they vary across cultures within the Muslim world. - Though they might be similarly Muslim, each culture has its own concept of death and the afterlife. - For instance, Muslims in Bosnia perform burial rituals that are much different than those in Pakistan or India. - The Bosnian rituals include ‘remains of the deceased as a first step in moving on, otherwise the survivors may not even accept that the deceased has died. - The belief is that without performing the rituals, the deceased may be unable to proceed to heaven’ (Gire, 2014: p. 15). - Thus, while there are general Muslim beliefs, there remains regional variation and interpretation. 5. The washing of the corpse and preparation for the afterlife - Similarly, Assous’ (2013) research focused on Algeria, a Sunni Muslim country, and examines how the concept of the afterlife impacts funeral rituals and how the deceased’s family does its utmost to ensure that its loved one is sent off under the best conditions. - Assous’ research reflects the centrality that death and the afterlife occupy within the Muslim community, whether in Algeria and Egypt, or Jordan and Morocco. - The conclusion of her research confirms the notion most Muslims share: the washing of the corpse serves as a hygiene of the self. - Muslims should not fear death, and washing a dead person remembers them with the respect a human being deserves (Assous, 2013: p. 293). - Another point that merits emphasis is that Assous’ investigation reinforces the Islamic teaching encouraging Muslims to perform good deeds all the time while alive. - Most Muslims believe that once a Muslim dies, he or she finds nothing but his or her own attributes. - These attributes reveal themselves to him or her in a form appropriate to his new abode (Nasr, 1997: p. 396). - While different faiths devote special ritualistic care to the treatment of the deceased’s body, the notion of the afterlife, from an Islamic perspective, influences the performance of funeral rituals. - The Qur’an speaks more prominently of the eternal afterlife using images of paradise, the Garden of Eden, flowing springs, and an abundance of fruits (Gray, 2015) than it does using the language of hell, punishment, and agony. - This highlights the need for Muslims to perform good deeds while on earth, which, in addition to God’s mercy, would grant them admittance to paradise. - This deep conviction regarding the afterlife sets the stage for how a Muslim family treats its deceased loved one. - One of the rituals Muslim families perform as their loved one is dying is Talqeen (reminding the dying of the two shahadas: I bear witness there is no God but Allah and that Mohamed is his servant and prophet). - The purpose of the Talqeen is to ensure that the dying individual is spiritually ready for their journey into death. - Equally important, the practice of thoroughly washing the body and applying fresh fragrances to the corpse serves a specific purpose: preparing the body for its journey into the afterlife. - Furthermore, the family of the deceased offers readings from the Qur’an, serves funeral meals, conducts prayers, and performs other good deeds such as charity for the poor. - It is imperative to highlight the importance and significance of the ritual washing, the meaning of enshrouding the body in kafan (white cloth), and Ṣalāt al-Janāzah (the funeral prayer). - It is believed that reading from the Qur’an when one is dying eases the dying person’s transition as he/she takes their last breaths. - Further, the dying is obliged to endure the darkness and ‘torment of the grave’ in a purgatory between death and the resurrection (Starkey, 2009: p. 297). - Muslims believe that at this phase (being in the grave) the deceased briefly travels to the hereafter and then returns to the grave to await the final judgment. - While the methods, traditions, and style for washing the corpse differ and vary from one Muslim country to another (or even within a community), they all share a common objective: physically cleansing the body. - Bathing the corpse adheres to Islamic tradition and follows in the footsteps of the Sunnah. - In Islam, washing the corpse should occur immediately after death (except in cases of violent death or mutilation when the body is kept in a morgue and wrapped in a shroud to minimize fluid leakage). - What follows the washing of the corpse is the enshrouding of the deceased in a white cloth. - Like washing, the shroud holds significance in the Islamic tradition because it demonstrates respect for the dignity and privacy of the departed. - The type of material, style, and color of the cloth used in shrouding vary from one region to the next, though shrouds are generally white, simply woven, in one piece, simple, and modest. - Generally, washing is performed by members of the same gender as the deceased. - However, contemporary Muslim scholars debate whether husbands should wash and prepare the body of their wives for burial. - Historical records suggest that Fatima (Prophet Mohamed’s daughter)’s husband, Ali ibn Talib, was absent during her preparation for burial. - Following her death, a century later, Muslims debated vigorously whether husbands should, or should not, play a role in preparing their wives for burial. - No consensus was reached back then as those who supported the notion that husbands were entitled to wash their dead wives argued that ‘Ali ibn Talib, Fatima’s husband, had, on the contrary to some sources, undertaken the ritual washing of his wife’s corpse’ (Halevi, 2011: p. 2). - However, Muslims, nowadays, ensure that when it comes to washing the deceased body and preparing it for burial, the consensus is that female washers wash deceased females, and male washers wash deceased males. - As to funeral prayer, Muslims of the community where the deceased is located gather together to offer prayers asking forgiveness and mercy on behalf of the deceased’s soul. - The prayer also serves as a reminder to the congregation and attendees that death is inevitable and everyone should prepare for it. - It is worth noting that the funeral prayer does not include bowing or prostrating since doing so, according to Islamic teachings, is only reserved for Allah, alone. - The funeral prayer, however, consists of repeating the Takbir (consisting of Allāhu Akbar, ‘Allah is great’) four times. 6. Conclusion - It is fair to state that despite human curiosity and imagination, we are unable to provide a clear and detailed description about the hereafter, paradise, hell, and other aspects of the next world. - The reason being is that, by design, Allah limits human capacity (and experience) when it comes to understanding future events pertaining to the afterlife. - There is a reason why Allah reveals these descriptions to his prophets: to demonstrate the importance of living a balanced life while understanding the connection between existence on earth and the existence in the hereafter. - What is evident is that in the Islamic tradition, the afterlife not only takes center stage within the religious teachings and narrative, but is also part of the future following one’s death. - While some aspects of the new life in the hereafter are meant to resemble those of the earthly life, Muslims think of the afterlife as a place of joy, free from pains and agony (Rustomji, 2009: p. 22). - Yet, Muslims display a firm commitment toward the belief that having access to paradise depends greatly not only on the adherent’s performance of good deeds when alive, but also on Allah’s mercy and grace. - Similarly, the notion of the afterlife influences funeral rituals as the family of the deceased enacts good deeds on his or her behalf in the hope of a peaceful transition and eventual admittance to paradise, if Allah wills it. - What seems nearly universally accepted among Muslims, regardless of their religious affiliation and socioeconomic status, is that life is a bridge into the hereafter. - And on the Day of Judgment, one will be judged fairly and justly, and depending on the outcome of that judgment, one will either be admitted to heaven or thrown into hellfire for eternity. Week 5 Friday Reading Jewish Views of the Afterlife - Until long after the exile (traditionally dated to 586 BCE), the Jewish people shared the view of the entire ancient world that the dead continue to exist in a shadowy realm of the nether world where they live a dull, ghostly existence. - According to Kaufmann Kohler, “throughout the Biblical period no ethical idea yet permeated this conception, and no attempt was made to transform the nether world into a place of Divine judgment, of recompense for the good and evil deeds accomplished on earth” (Kohler, 1968, p. 279). - This was so because Biblical Judaism stressed the importance of attaining a complete and blissful life with God during earthly life; there was no need to transfer the purpose of existence to the Hereafter. - In the words of Robert Henry Charles, “So long indeed as Yahweh’s jurisdiction was conceived as limited to this life, a Yahwistic eschatology of the individual could not exist; but when at last Israel reached the great truth of monotheism, the way was prepared for the moralization of the future no less than that of the present” (Charles, 1913, p. 157). - It was only then under social, economic, and political oppression that pious Jews looked beyond their bitter disappointment with this world to a future beyond the grave when virtue would receive its due reward and vice its befitting punishment (Kohler, 1968, p. 282). - In the modern world, however, this traditional view has lost its hold on Jewish consciousness. The Biblical View of the Afterlife - Though there is no explicit reference to the Hereafter in the Hebrew Bible, a number of expressions are used to refer to the realm of the dead. - In Psalm 28: 1 and 88: 5, *bor* refers to a pit. - In Psalm 6: 6, as well as in Job 28: 22 and 30: 23, *mavet* is used in a similar sense. - In Psalm 22: 16, the expression *afar mavet* refers to the dust of death; in Exodus 15: 2 and Jonah 2: 7, the earth (*eretz*) is described as swallowing up the dead. - In Ezekiel 31: 14, the expression *eretz tachtit* refers to the nether parts of the earth where the dead dwell. - Finally, the word *she’ol* is frequently used to refer to the dwelling of the dead in the nether world (Ps. 28: 1; 88: 5; Num. 16: 33; Ps. 6: 6; Is. 38: 18). - In addition, the words *ge ben hinnom* (Josh. 18: 16; 2 Kings 23: 10; Jer. 7: 31—32, 19: 6, 32: 35), *ge hinnom* (Josh. 18: 16), and *ge* (Jer. 2: 32; 2 Chron. 26: 9; Neh. 2: 13, 15; Neh. 3: 13) are used to refer to a cursed valley associated with fire and death where, according to Jeremiah, children were sacrificed as burnt offerings to Moloch and Baal (Jer. 7: 31—32; 19: 6, 32: 35). - In later rabbinic literature, the word ordinarily used for Hell (*Gehinnom*) is derived from these names. - Though these passages point to a Biblical conception of an afterlife, there is no indication of a clearly defined concept. - It is only later in the Graeco-Roman world that such a notion began to take shape. - The idea of a future world in which the righteous would be compensated for the ills they suffered in this life was prompted by a failure to justify the ways of God by any other means. - According to Biblical theodicy, human beings were promised rewards for obeying God’s law and punishments were threatened for disobedience. - Rewards included health, children, rainfall, a good harvest, peace, and prosperity. - Punishments consisted of disease, war, pestilence, failure of crops, poverty, and slavery. - As time passed, however, it became clear that life did not operate in accordance with such a tidy scheme. - In response to this dilemma, the rabbis developed a doctrine of reward and punishment in the Hereafter. - Such a belief helped Jews to cope with suffering in this life, and it also explained, if not the presence of evil in the world, then at least the worthwhileness of creation despite the world’s ills (See Jacobs, 1973). The Hereafter in rabbinic thought - Given that there is no explicit belief in eternal salvation in the Bible (See Jacob, 1962, vol. 2, p. 689; Kohler, 1968, p. 392), the rabbis of the post-Biblical period were faced with the difficulty of proving that the doctrine of resurrection of the dead is contained in Scripture, which they regarded as authoritative. - To do this, they employed certain principles of exegesis, which are based on the assumption that every word in the Torah was transmitted by God to Moses. - Thus, for example, Rabbi Eleazar, the son of Rabbi Jose, claimed to have refuted the Sectarians who maintained that resurrection is not a Biblical doctrine: “I said to them: You have falsified the Torah [...] For ye maintain that resurrection is not a Biblical doctrine,” but it is written (Num. 15: 31ff), “Because he hath despised the word of the Lord, and hath broken his commandments, that soul shall utterly be cut off, his iniquity shall be upon him. - Now, seeing that he shall utterly be cut off in this world, when shall his iniquity be upon him? Surely in the next world” (San. 90b). - Again, Rabbi Meir asked, “Whence do we know resurrection from the Torah? From the verse, ‘then shall Moses and the children of Israel sing this song unto the Lord’ (Ex. 15: 1). - Not ‘sang,’ but ‘sing’ is written. Since Moses and the children of Israel did not sing a second time in this life, the text must mean that they will sing after resurrection. - Likewise, it is written, ‘Then shall Joshua build an altar unto the Lord God of Israel’ (Joshua 8: 30). - Not ‘build’ but ‘shall build’ is stated. Thus resurrection is intimated in the Torah” (San. 91b). - Similarly, Rabbi Joshua b. Levi said: “Where is resurrection derived from the Torah? From the verse, ‘Blessed are they that dwell in thy house; they shall ever praise thee’ (Ps. 84: 5). - The text does not say ‘praised thee’ but ‘shall praise thee.’ Thus we learn resurrection from the Torah” (San. 91b). - The principle qualification for entrance to Heaven (Gan Eden) is to lead a good life in accordance with God’s law. - Conversely, the rabbis point out that by disobeying God’s law, one forfeits a share in the World to Come and is doomed to eternal punishment in Hell (Gehinnom, originally a valley near Jerusalem where Moloch was worshipped) (See Jer. 7: 31—32; 19: 6; 32: 35). - According to the Mishnah, there are various categories of sinners who will be damned: (1) He who says there is no resurrection of the dead prescribed in the Torah; (2) he who says that the Torah is not from Heaven; (3) a heretic; (4) a reader of heretical books and one that utters a charm over a wound; (5) he who pronounces God’s name by supplying vowels; (6) the generation of the flood; (7) the generation of Babel; (8) the men of Sodom; (9) the twelve spies; (10) the ten lost tribes; (11) the children of the wicked; (12) the people of an apostate city; (13) those who have been executed by a rabbinical court unless they confessed their sins before death (See Super, 1967, pp. 103—108). - On the basis of the discussion of these categories in the Babylonian Talmud and the remarks of sages elsewhere in rabbinic literature, Maimonides in his *Guide for the Perplexed* drew up a different list of those who have no share in Heaven, which has been regarded by many as authoritative (Maimonides, Laws of Repentance III, Sections 6, 7, 8). The nature of the Hereafter - The World to Come is divided into several stages: first, there is the time of the Messianic redemption. - According to the Babylonian Talmud, the Messianic Age (Yemot Hamashiah) is to take place on earth after a period of decline and calamity and will result in a complete fulfillment of every human wish. - Peace will reign throughout nature; Jerusalem will be rebuilt; and at the close of this era, the dead will be resurrected and rejoined with their souls, and a final judgment will come upon all humankind. - Those who are judged righteous will enter into Heaven (Gan Eden), which is portrayed in various ways in rabbinic literature (See Super, 1967). - One of the earliest descriptions is found in Midrash Konen, and the following extract is a representative sample of the type of elaboration in rabbinic sources: - The Gan Eden at the east measures 80,000 years (at ten miles per day or 3650 miles per year). - There are five chambers for various classes of the righteous. - The first is built of cedar, with a ceiling of transparent crystal. - This is the habitation of non-Jews who become true and devoted converts to Judaism. - They are headed by Obadiah the prophet and Onkelos the proselyte, who teach them the Law. - The second is built of cedar, with a ceiling of fine silver. - This is the habitation of the penitents, headed by Manasseh, King of Israel, who teaches them the Law. - The third chamber is built of silver and gold, ornamented with pearls. - It is very spacious and contains the best of heaven and of earth, with spices, fragrance, and sweet odors. - In the center of this chamber stands the Tree of Life, 500 years high. - Under its shadow rest Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the tribes, those of the Egyptian exodus, and those who died in the wilderness, headed by Moses and Aaron. - There are also David and Solomon, crowned, and Chileab, as if living, attending on his father, David. - Every generation of Israel is represented except that of Absalom and his confederates. - Moses teaches them the Law, and Aaron gives instruction to the priests. - The Tree of Life is like a ladder on which the souls of the righteous may ascend and descend. - In a conclave above are seated the Patriarchs, the Ten Martyrs, and those who sacrificed their lives for the cause of His Sacred Name. - These souls descend daily to Gan Eden, to join their families and tribes, where they lounge on soft cathedrals studded with jewels. - Everyone, according to his excellence, is received in audience to praise and thank the Ever-living God; and all enjoy the brilliant light of the Shekinah. - The flaming sword, changing from intense heat to icy cold, and from ice to glowing coals, guards the entrance against living mortals. - The souls on entering paradise are bathed in the 248 rivulets of balsam and attar. - The fourth chamber is made of olive-wood and is inhabited by those who have suffered for the sake of their religion. - Olives typify bitterness in taste and brilliancy in light (olive-oil), symbolizing persecution and its reward. - The fifth chamber is built of precious stones, gold and silver, surrounded by myrrh and aloes. - In front of the chamber runs the river Gihon on whose banks are planted shrubs affording perfume and aromatic incense. - There are couches of gold and silver and fine drapery. - This chamber is inhabited by the Messiah of David, Elijah, and the Messiah of Ephraim. - In the center are a canopy made of the cedars of Lebanon, in the style of the Tabernacle, with posts and vessels of silver; and a settee of Lebanon wood with pillars of silver and a seat of gold, the covering thereof of purple. - Within rests the Messiah, son of David, “a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief” suffering, and waiting to release Israel from the Exile. - Elijah comforts and encourages him to be patient. - Every Monday and Thursday, and Sabbath and on holy days the Patriarchs, Moses, Aaron, and others, call on the Messiah and condole with him, in the hope of the fast-approaching end. - As with Heaven, we also find extensive and detailed descriptions of Hell in Jewish literature. - In the Babylonian Talmud, Rabbi Joshua b. Levi deduces the divisions of Hell from Biblical quotations: she’ol, abaddon, be’er shahat, bor sha’on, tit ha-yawen, zel mawet, and erez ha-tahtit. - This Talmudic concept of the seven-fold structure of Hell is greatly elaborated in midrashic literature. - According to one source, it requires 300 years to traverse the height or width or the depth of each division, and it would take 6,300 years to go over a tract of land equal in extent to the seven divisions (Erubin 19a). - Each of these seven divisions of Hell is in turn divided into seven subdivisions and in each compartment there are seven rivers of fire, and seven of hail. - The width of each is 1,000 ells, its depth 1,000, and its length 300; they flow from each other and are supervised by the Angels of Destruction. - Besides, in each compartment there are 7,000 caves, and in each cave there are 7,000 crevices, and in every crevice there are 7,000 scorpions. - Every scorpion has 300 rings, and in every ring 7,000 pouches of venom from which flow seven rivers of deadly poison. - If a man handles it, he immediately bursts, every limb is torn from his body, his bowels are cleft, and he falls upon his face (Ginzberg, 1968, Vol. I, p. 15). - Confinement to Hell is the result of disobeying God’s Torah, as illustrated by the midrash concerning the evening visit of the soul to Hell before it is implanted in an individual. - There, it sees the Angels of Destruction smiting with fiery scourges; the sinners all the while crying out, but no mercy is shown to them. - The angel guides the soul and then asks: “Do you know who these are?” - Unable to respond, the soul listens as the angel continues: “Those who are consumed with fire were created like you. - When they were put into the world, they did not observe God’s Torah and His commandments. - Therefore they have come to this disgrace which you see them suffer. - Know, your destiny is also to depart from the world. - Be just, therefore, and not wicked, that you may gain the future world” (Ginzberg, 1968, Vol. I, pp. 57—58). - The soul was not alone in being able to see Hell; a number of Biblical personages entered into its midst. - Moses, for example, was guided through Hell by an angel, and his journey there gives us the most complete picture of its torments. - When Moses and the Angel of Destruction entered Hell together, they saw men being tortured by the Angels of Destruction. - Some sinners were suspended by their eyelids, some by their ears, some by their hands, and some by their tongues. - In addition, women were suspended by their hair and their breasts by chains of fire. - Such punishments were inflicted on the basis of the sins that were committed: those who hung by their eyes had looked lustfully upon their neighbours’ wives and possessions; - those who hung by their ears had listened to empty and vain speech and did not listen to the Torah; - those who hung by their tongues had spoken foolishly and slanderously; - those who hung by their hands had robbed and murdered their neighbours. - The women who hung by their hair and breasts had uncovered them in the presence of young men in order to seduce them. - In another place, called Alukah, Moses saw sinners suspended by their feet with their heads downwards and their bodies covered with long black worms. - These sinners were punished in this way because they swore falsely, profaned the Sabbath and the Holy Days, despised the sages, called their neighbors by unseemly nicknames, wronged the orphan and the widow, and bore false witness. - In another section, Moses saw sinners prone on their faces with 2,000 scorpions lashing, stinging, and tormenting them. - Each of these scorpions had 70,000 heads, each head 70,000 mouths, each mouth 70,000 stings, and each sting 70,000 pouches of poison and venom. - So great was the pain they inflicted that the eyes of the sinners melted in their sockets. - These sinners were punished in this way because they had robbed other Jews, were arrogant in the community, put their neighbors to shame in public, delivered their fellow Jews into the hands of the gentiles, denied the Torah, and maintained that God is not the creator of the world. - In another place, called Tit ha-Yawen, sinners stood in mud up to their navels while Angels of Destruction lashed them with fiery chains and broke their teeth with fiery stones. - These sinners were punished in this way because they had eaten forbidden food, lent their money at usury, had written the name of God on amulets for gentiles, used false weights, stole money from fellow Jews, ate on the Day of Atonement, and drank blood. - Finally, after seeing these tortures, Moses observed how sinners were burnt in the section of Hell called Abaddon. - There, one-half of their bodies were immersed in fire and the other half in snow while worms bred in their own flesh crawled over them, and the Angels of Destruction beat them incessantly. - By stealth, these sinners took snow and put it in their armpits to relieve the pain inflicted by the scorching fire. - These sinners were punished because they had committed incest, murder, idolatry, called themselves gods, and cursed their parents and teachers. - From this description, it might appear that Hell is reserved for those Jews who have disobeyed the Mosaic law. - Such exclusivism, however, was refuted throughout rabbinic literature. - For example, in Midr. Prov., Rabbi Joshua explained that gentiles are doomed to eternal punishment unless they are righteous (Midr. Prov. XVII, I, 42b). - Asked how a person can escape the judgment of Hell, he replied, “Let him occupy himself with good deeds,” and he pointed out that this applies to gentiles as well as Jews. - There were some rabbis who proclaimed that God cosigns gentiles en masse to Hell (see Montefiore and Loewe, 1974, p. XCIII). - Of course, gentiles were not expected to keep all of Jewish law in order to escape Hell; they were simply required to keep the Noachide Laws, that is, those laws which Noah and his descendants took upon themselves. - The violation of such laws was regarded by the rabbis as repugnant to fundamental human morality, quite apart from revelation, and was a basis for confinement to Hell. - However, there was some disagreement as to the laws themselves. - In Gen. R., Noah 34: 8, for example, we read that “The sons of Noah were given seven commands: in respect of (1) idolatry, (2) incest, (3) shedding of blood, (4) profanation of the Name of God, (5) justice, (6) robbery, (7) cutting off flesh or limb from a living animal.” - R. Hanina said: Also about taking blood from a living animal. - R. Elazar said: Also about ‘diverse kinds’ and mixtures (Lev. 19: 19). - R. Simeon said: Also about witchcraft. - R. Johanan b. Baroka said: Also about castration (of animals). - R. Assi said: Everything forbidden in Deut. 18: 10, 11 was also forbidden to the sons of Noah, because it says ‘whoever does these things is an abomination unto the Lord.’” - Nevertheless, despite this disagreement, a gentile who lived a sinful life by violating the Noachide laws was destined to be punished in Hell, and conversely, if he lived in accordance with them, he could gain entry into the World to Come. - This eschatological scheme, which was formulated over the centuries by innumerable rabbis, should not be seen as a flight of fancy. - It was a serious attempt to explain God’s ways to human beings. - Israel was God’s chosen people and had received God’s promise of reward for keeping his law. - Since this did not happen on earth in this life, the rabbis believed it must occur in the World to Come. - Never did the rabbis relinquish the belief that God would justify Israel by destroying the power of the oppressing nations. - This would come about in the Messianic Age. - The individual who had died without seeing the justification of God would be resurrected to see the ultimate victory of the Jewish people. - And just as the nations would be judged in the period of Messianic redemption, so would each individual. - In this way, the vindication of the righteous would be assured in the Hereafter. The decline of rabbinic eschatology - On the basis of this scheme of eternal salvation and damnation — which was at the heart of rabbinic theology throughout the centuries — it might be expected that modern Jewish theologians of all shades of religious observance and opinion would attempt to explain contemporary Jewish history in the context of traditional eschatology. - This, however, has not happened; instead, many Jewish writers have set aside doctrines concerning Messianic redemption, resurrection, final judgment, and reward for the righteous and punishment for the wicked. - This shift in emphasis is in part due to the fact that the views expressed in the narrative sections of the midrashim and the Talmud are not binding. - As mentioned, all Jews are obliged to accept the Divine origin of the Law, but this is not so with regard to theological concepts and theories expounded by the rabbis. - Thus it is possible for a Jew to be religiously pious without accepting all the central beliefs of mainstream Judaism. - Indeed, throughout Jewish history, there has been widespread confusion as to what these beliefs are. - In the first century BCE, for example, the sage Hillel stated that the quintessence of Judaism could be formulated in a single principle: “that which is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbour. This is the whole of the Law; all the rest is commentary” (Shabb. 31a). - Similarly, in the second century CE, the Council of Lydda ruled that under certain circumstances the laws of the Torah may be transgressed in order to save one’s life, with the exception of idolatry, murder, and unchastity (Sanh. 74a). - In both these cases, the center of gravity was in the ethical rather than the religious sphere. - However, in the medieval period, Maimonides formulated what he considered to be the thirteen principles of the Jewish faith (i.e. the existence of God; the unity of God; the incorporeality of God; the eternity of God; God alone is to be worshipped; prophecy; Moses is the greatest of the prophets; the divinity of the Torah; the inalterability of the Torah; the omniscience of God; reward and punishment; the Messiah; the resurrection of the Dead). - Other thinkers, though, challenged this formulation. - Hasdai Crescas, Simon ben Zemah Duran, Joseph Albo, and Isaac Arami elaborated different creeds, and some thinkers, like David ben Solomon Ibn Abi Zimrah, argued that it is impossible to isolate from the whole Torah essential principles of the Jewish religion. - He wrote: “I do not agree that it is right to make any part of the perfect Torah into a ‘principle’ since the whole Torah is a ‘principle’ from the mouth of the Almighty” (Responsum No. 344, as quoted by Jacobs, 1964, p. 24). - Thus when formulations of the central theological tenets of Judaism were propounded, they were not universally accepted since they were simply the opinions of individual teachers. - Without a central authority whose opinion in theological matters was binding on all Jews, it has been impossible to determine the correct theological beliefs in Judaism. - In the words of Solomon Schechter, “any attempt at an orderly and complete system of rabbinic theology is an impossible task” (Schechter, 1961, p. 16). - Given that there is no authoritative bedrock of Jewish theology, many modern Jewish thinkers have felt fully justified in abandoning the various elements of traditional rabbinic eschatology which they regard as untenable. - The doctrine of Messianic redemption, for example, has been radically modified. - In the last century, Reform Jews tended to interpret the new liberation in the Western world as the first step towards the realization of the Messianic dream. - But the Messianic redemption was understood in this-worldly terms. - No longer, according to this view, was it necessary for Jews to pray for a restoration in Eretz Israel. - Rather, they should view their own countries as Zion and their political leaders as bringing about the Messianic age. - Secular Zionists, on the other hand, saw the return to Israel as the legitimate conclusion to be drawn from the realities of Jewish life in Western countries, thereby viewing the State of Israel as a substitute for the Messiah himself. - As Louis Jacobs notes, “most modern Jews prefer to interpret the Messianic hope in naturalistic terms, abandoning the belief in a personal Messiah, the restoration of the sacrificial system, and to a greater or lesser degree, the idea of direct Divine intervention” (Jacobs, 1964, pp. 388—389). - Similarly, the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead has in modern times been largely replaced in both Orthodox and non-Orthodox Judaism by the belief in the immortality of the soul. - The original belief in resurrection was an eschatological hope bound up with the rebirth of the nation in the Days of the Messiah, but as this Messianic concept faded into the background, so also did this doctrine. - For most Jews, physical resurrection is simply inconceivable in the light of a scientific understanding of the nature of the world. - The late Chief Rabbi Joseph H. Hertz, for example, argued that what really matters is the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. - Thus he wrote: “Many and various are the folk beliefs and poetical fancies in the rabbinical writings concerning Heaven, Gan Eden, and Hell, Gehinnom. - Our most authoritative religious guides, however, proclaim that no eye hath seen, nor can mortal fathom, what awaiteth us in the Hereafter; but that even the tarnished soul will not forever be denied spiritual bliss” (Hertz, 1947, p. 255). - In the Reform community, a similar attitude prevails. - In a well-known statement of the beliefs of Reform Judaism, it is stated that Reform Jews “reassert the doctrine of Judaism that the soul is immortal, grounding this belief on the Divine nature of the human spirit, which forever finds bliss in righteousness and misery in wickedness. - We reject as ideas not rooted in Judaism the belief in bodily resurrection and in Gehenna and Eden (Hell and Paradise) as abodes for eternal punishment or reward” (Plaut, 1965, p. 34). - The point to note about the conception of the immortal soul in both Orthodox and Reform Judaism is that it is dissociated from traditional notions of Messianic redemption and Divine judgment. - The belief in eternal punishment has also been discarded by a large number of Jews partly because of the interest in penal reform during the past century. - Punishment as retaliation in a vindictive sense has been generally rejected. - Thus Jacobs writes, “the value of punishment as a deterrent and for the protection of society is widely recognized. - But all the stress today is on the reformatory aspects of punishment. - Against such a background the whole question of reward and punishment in the theological sphere is approached in a more questioning spirit” (Jacobs, 1964, p. 364). - Further, the rabbinic view of Hell is seen by many as morally repugnant. - Jewish theologians have stressed that it is a delusion to believe that a God of love could have created a place of eternal punishment. - In his commentary on the prayer book, Chief Rabbi Hertz categorically declared, “Judaism rejects the doctrine of eternal damnation” (as quoted by Jacobs, 1964, p. 415). - And in Jewish Theology, the Reform rabbi Kohler argued that the question whether the tortures of Hell are reconcilable with Divine mercy “is for us superfluous and superseded. - Our modern conceptions of time and space admit neither a place nor a world-period for the reward and punishment of souls, nor the intolerable conception of eternal joy without useful action and eternal agony without any moral purpose” (Kohler, 1968, p. 309). - Traditional rabbinic eschatology has thus lost its force for a large number of Jews in the modern period, and in consequence, there has been a gradual this-worldly emphasis in Jewish thought. - Significantly, this has been accompanied by a powerful attachment to the State of Israel. - For many Jews, the founding of the Jewish State is the central focus of their religious and cultural identity. - Jews throughout the world have deep admiration for the astonishing achievements of Israelis in reclaiming the desert and building a viable society and great respect for the heroism of Israel’s soldiers and statesmen. - As a result, it is not uncommon for Jews to equate Jewishness with Zionism and to see Judaism as fundamentally nationalistic in character — this is a far cry from the rabbinic view of history which placed the doctrine of the Hereafter at the center of Jewish life and thought. Conclusion - We can see therefore that the wheel has swung full circle from the faint allusions to immortality in the Biblical period which led to an elaborate development of the concept of the Hereafter in rabbinic Judaism. - Whereas the rabbis put the belief in an Afterlife at the center of their religious system, modern Jewish thinkers, both Orthodox and Reform, have abandoned such an other-worldly outlook, even to the point of denying the existence of such doctrines. - It may be that these concepts are outmoded and should be abandoned in the light of contemporary thought, but there is no doubt that such a development raises major problems for Judaism in the modern age. - The belief in the Hereafter has helped Jews make sense of the world as a creation of a good and all-powerful God and provided a source of great consolation for their travail on earth. - Without the promise of Messianic redemption, resurrection, and the eventual vindication of the righteous in Paradise, Jews will face great difficulties reconciling the belief in a providential God who watches over his chosen people with the terrible events of modern Jewish history. - If there is no eschatological unfolding of a Divine drama in which the Jewish victims will ultimately triumph, what hope can there be for the Righteous of Israel who have suffered for their convictions? Week 6 Friday Reading Sikh Perspectives towards Death and End-of-Life Care Background - In North America, health care professionals increasingly care for patients from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds. - These cultural belief systems and religious doctrines provide a framework for understanding the experiences of critically ill patients and their family members (1). - Although the extant literature describes cultural and religious differences in patient care for major religious groups including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and Islam (2-7), concerns of smaller yet significant religious groups have not been explored in depth. - Sikhism originated in the state of Punjab in Northern India in the 15th century and was founded by Guru Nanak Dev Ji as a reaction to the caste system and oppression that existed at the time (8). - Over the past few decades, there has been a steady stream of immigration of Sikhs from Punjab to Canada, and a considerable proportion now reside in southern parts of Ontario and British Columbia (9-11). - In Canada, Sikhs represent a significant minority with an approximate population of 280,000 (0.9%) (11). - However, their attitudes surrounding health care have been scarcely investigated in the medical literature (12). - Considering that Sikhs have varied perspectives of death and palliative care, it is important for health care professionals to appreciate their attitudes and beliefs. - The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives and attitudes surrounding death and end-of-life care in Sikh Canadians. - Our objectives were to gain insight into the opinions surrounding the influence of religion on end-of-life care and describe how the beliefs of these Sikh Canadians regarding decision-making vary from Western belief systems. - Although this study describes a sample of the attitudes held by the Sikh community, we do not attempt to generalize these results to the overall Sikh population. Methods - A descriptive qualitative methodology was utilized. - Descriptive qualitative methods are less interpretive than other qualitative techniques, such as phenomenology, but aim to stay closer to the data by providing a thorough description of an experience or an event (13). - Snowball sampling was used where a participant who had been interviewed identified another individual who may provide valuable information (14). - One of the authors (K.B.) received a reference from a colleague to contact a diversity expert in the Sikh community. - From this contact, we were referred to other potential participants. - One-on-one, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five Sikh individuals (two males, three females) who were English-speaking, ranged in age from 25 to 45, and were living in the greater Toronto area. - A semi-structured interview guide ensured that all necessary topics were covered. - The duration of each interview ranged from approximately 60 to 90 minutes. - Field notes and memos were recorded in a notebook. - A focus group of five individuals (three males, two females) consisting of community leaders, religious leaders, and representatives ranging in age from mid-30s to mid-60s met for approximately two hours in a large community hospital in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. - One of these individuals also took part in the semi-structured interviews. - A similar guide to that used in the one-on-one interviews was used to facilitate discussion and guide the search and collection of data. - The focus group discussion permitted clarification of ideas presented in the interviews. - The interviews and focus group were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. - Interviews continued until saturation, where no new insights or concepts were likely to be obtained (15). - We considered the information from the five interviews as a comprehensive answer to our research question. - Moreover, as this was a relatively cohesive sample with similar backgrounds, saturation was able to be reached faster than in random samples (16). - The one-on-one interviews and focus group data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. - Each interview was read thoroughly to gain "immersion" with the data (17). - After this, chunks of data were organized into categories of similar content. - Novel data were continuously compared across the categories, with new relationships being subsequently discovered. - In the final stage, categories were organized into themes. - These themes were verified internally and externally in relation to the comparison across categories. - This study was approved by the Research Ethics Board at the University Health Network. - Participation in this study was voluntary and informed consent was obtained. - All transcripts were anonymous: no study participants were identified. Results - Respondents described attitudes in terms of family and prayers, the “five Ks”, truth telling,beliefs on death and dying, organ donation, and after death. Family and Prayers - Participants emphasized that the concept of identity in Sikhism was unlike that of Western culture. - Western society places a high value on individual autonomy in the decision-making process, whereas Sikhism stresses the importance of taking a holistic approach to decision-making. - The patient, their family, and their religion function as an integrated unit. - Respondents asserted that the Sikh individual is viewed as a relational self, a self whose social relationships — not rationality and individualism — provide the basis for moral judgment. - The family and community are thought to provide social support, financial security, and medical and non-medical advice. - It was stated that Sikh families often designate a spokesperson (usually the eldest son) to be responsible for managing issues of consent. - The importance of prayers in the palliative setting was also emphasized. - Members of the extended family recite prayers and chants from the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book), listen to Gurbani (sacred hymns), and/or play Kirtan (religious music) to console the patient and their family. - A religious leader may be brought in to recite Ardas — a prayer to address God. Five Ks - Sikh respondents strongly emphasized the importance of abiding by the “five Ks,” short for the five Kakars (articles of faith). - The five Ks are Kesh (uncut hair), Kangha (a wooden comb), Kara (a bracelet typically made of steel or iron), Kirpan (a short sword), and Kachera (shorts/underwear). - It was noted that some Sikhs may follow none, some, or all of the five Ks. - Many considered the turban (headdress) to be one of the most widely recognized symbols of Sikhism. - Participants mentioned that removal of the turban becomes an issue in many medical procedures. - If removal of the turban is required, the turban should be respectfully replaced with a surgical cap or scarf. - Furthermore, if haircutting anywhere on the body is necessary for a procedure, then minimal amounts should be cut. - Respondents asserted that sensitivity to the significance of the five Ks is important at all times. - Families should be consulted prior to the removal of any of the five Ks. Truth Telling and Beliefs on Death and Dying - Truth telling was defined as the amount of medical information disclosed to the patient about their prognosis. - Participants described Sikhs as having a family-oriented approach towards truth telling. - Informing the family of a terminal illness allows family members to deflect the impact of the diagnosis and prognosis from the patient. - Participants explained that it is the role of the family unit to accept their loved one’s terminal state and their duty to protect them from undue harm. - Thus, during disclosure of a terminal illness, many Sikh families choose not to inform the patient of their diagnosis or prognosis due to the belief that the information may hasten the course towards death. - However, there seems to be variations on this belief, as some respondents said that disclosure of terminal illness is necessary to gain a sense of closure. - It was largely expressed that placing the sick or elderly in long-term care facilities has a negative stigma. - Respondents said that placing a terminal patient who is in a vegetative state on artificial support for a prolonged time is discouraged, since death is willingly accepted by most Sikhs. - They stated that while the physical body dies, the soul continues its journey through the cycle of reincarnation. - For questions of brain death, there were varied views among respondents. - Some said that brain death is not actual death; however, another Sikh perspective emerged: some said that “brain death is a sign from God that it is time to let the person go.” - Such dichotomies were common in this study. Organ Donation - Respondents emphasized the importance of organ donation and stressed the significance of selfless giving: “Sikhs should accept organ transplantation, both donating and receiving, since the soul is considered the core of a person and not the physical nature of their body.” - Moreover, organ donation was thought to correspond with the notion of selfless service to humanity and sharing good fortune with the needy, a core tenet of Sikhism. - However, participants also mentioned that some Sikhs may be opposed to organ donation. - All respondents said that health care providers need to have a conversation about organ donation with family members. After Death - Respondents said that when the patient has died, families console themselves with the recitation of sacred hymns. - They said that the body should receive special post-mortem care: bathed, cleaned with yogurt (considered a cleansing agent), and dressed in clean clothes. - If the body is wearing any of the five Ks, they should not be removed. - After putting the body on a plank or in a coffin, shabads (devotional songs that induce feelings of detachment) are recited while the body is carried to the crematorium. - Respondents said that cremation is conducted differently in Canada as compared to India. - In India, the male relative ignites the fire during cremation, whereas in Canada, a button is pressed to send the coffin through curtains in the crematorium. - Participants stressed the importance of cremation and funeral arrangements being carried out as soon as possible, unless family delays it for specific reasons (i.e., waiting for other family members to arrive, or post-mortem examinations). - Consulting with the patient’s family in advance regarding post-mortem care was said to be especially important. Discussion - This study evaluated Sikh-Canadian perspectives towards end-of-life care and death. - It provides insight into the concepts of Sikh faith and beliefs around death and dying, withdrawing treatment, organ donation, and interests of the patient. - Previous studies evaluating the end-of-life attitudes of religions in India have primarily examined Hindu attitudes or grouped the Indian subcontinent as a single category, “Indians,” which is an unjust generalization considering the diversity within India. - Worth et al. evaluated Sikh and Muslim attitudes towards end-of-life in Scotland, focusing on improvement in access to quality end-of-life care. - To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first study to qualitatively evaluate Sikh perspectives towards death and end of life in a North American setting. - In North America, health care professionals largely follow the dominant approach of Western bioethics, where honesty and truthfulness in relaying information, and respect for the patient’s autonomy are key. - For Sikhs, health is primarily dependent on the teaching and practices of family and religion, which are integral parts of Sikh identity. - The Sikh religion provides a comprehensive moral code that differs greatly from Western culture. - This includes an interdependent and duty-based approach to decision-making, rather than an approach based on autonomy. - The impact of mainstream North American culture may affect the health and well-being of Sikh Canadians and their families as they move through the transition from life to the end of life. - For Sikhs, death is a readily accepted concept. - Death is considered to be the predetermined fate for the soul in the cycle of reincarnation. - Thus, maintaining a terminally ill patient on life support is not encouraged by the Sikh community if further treatment is considered futile. - It is essential for health care professionals to be aware that the terminally ill patient may want to place the weight of this decision-making on their family. - It is understandable that the health care provider may be uncomfortable with this situation, as it interferes with the North American understanding of autonomy. - The health care professional can gain insight into the patient’s beliefs by asking questions such as: “How are these decisions made by you and your family?” and “What is most important for you and your family when making these decisions?” - An additional difficulty arises when the family believes the outcome of life or death is in God’s hands. - The introduction of the “human hand” (human decision-making and interventions) in end-of-life decisions may be highly problematic for these Sikhs. - To avoid this difficulty, medical recommendations followed by open conversation is strongly recommended over open-ended questions like “What should we do?” directed to families. - Health care providers should be sensitive to the family’s need for prayers and the five Ks during end of life and after the patient’s death, where these religious elements may assume heightened importance. - If health care providers find the prayers to be an inconvenience for other patients, they should provide a prayer room or religious space that accommodates Sikh families. - Additionally, when feasible, it is imperative that health care professionals be open and understanding to visits from a large number of Sikh family members. - Religious variation was quite common among Sikh respondents and has been suggested as a common finding in other studies. - Health care providers need not have anxieties about approaching Sikh patients or families to discuss these matters. - It is also important to note that anticipating and assessing acculturation — assimilation that results from continuous contact between two distinct cultural groups — is of critical importance when working cross-culturally. - To some extent, one can assume that people who do not speak English as a first language are more likely to hold traditional belief systems. - This was illustrated in Reimer-Kirham’s study, where older people were said to have more traditional beliefs in their following of Sikh tenets. - However, our study illustrates that acculturation can vary among individuals. - Due to the inconsistency in findings between studies, it is vital for health care workers to engage in open and direct communication with the family. - This practice may help to avoid conflicts and promotes a positive health care worker/patient/family relationship. - It is often assumed that respect and acceptance of cultural and religious diversity is a given. - However, despite an increased openness to other cultures and religions, North American health care providers’ attitudes towards end of life are very much embedded in North American philosophy. - It is essential for health care workers to be aware of perspectives and opinions grounded in a variety of cultural and religious identities. - Identifying these perspectives allows health care providers to effectively address concerns of patients from various backgrounds and belief systems in a sensitive manner. - This understanding helps to resolve conflicts in a fair, timely, and practical manner. Limitation - There are several limitations to this study. - Firstly, one may have difficulty in observing “Western” or “Sikh” as separate counterparts, considering that cultures and religions are not homogeneous blocks of similar values. - We do not declare that the Sikh group is uninfluenced by Western traditions in Canada, but we are attempting to analyze the attitudes we observed through the eyes of individuals who have devout Sikh values. - A second limitation is the use of the English language in interviews and focus groups. - Considering that English was not the primary language of many respondents, there was potential for misinterpretation. - Caution was used during data collection by asking for clarification when necessary. - A third limitation is not capturing the amount of time the respondents had lived in Canada, or away from their native country. - Although some respondents emphasized that acculturation was not associated with length of time since immigration, it may have potential associations in a larger sample. - A fourth limitation is the small sample size. - The attitudes of 10 Sikh individuals may not represent the Sikh religion generally. - Considering that there is limited literature on this subject, this pilot study may help generate further studies that use a more robust qualitative methodology. Conclusion - Sikh beliefs towards death and end of life are under-evaluated in the medical literature. - Given the significant population of Sikhs in Canada, an understanding of the Sikh religion may help avoid potential conflict and facilitate effective communication. - A significant effort must be made to raise awareness and alter practices in this crucial area. - Future studies could adopt a longitudinal design and repeated interviews to describe attitudes in depth. Week 8 Friday Reading The Incorruptible Flesh of the Martyrs - It was in the city of Milan, the Roman Mediolanum, northern Italy, in the 380s AD that Christian relics first became part of a dramatic display. - Since the late third century, the vast Roman Empire had been divided into separate territories, usually two: a Latin-speaking west and a Greek-speaking east, to make defense more manageable. - Each had their own emperor, although the two often collaborated in fighting off threats. - The western emperors were based in Milan rather than in Rome, which was too far south from the threatened northern borders. - In the summer of AD 386, however, Milan was in crisis. - The fourteen-year-old emperor of the west, Valentinian II, had found himself in deadlock with the city’s bishop, Ambrose. - Ambrose had been a provincial governor, not even a baptized Christian, when made bishop in 374, at a time when there was a great deal of unrest in the Christian community over rival interpretations of doctrine. - He was a powerful man who soon brought order to his fractured congregation and emerged as a formidable defender of the Church, against pagans, heretics, and the emperors who tried to thwart him. - Ambrose and Valentinian were fighting over control of San Lorenzo, one of the churches in the city that the imperial family claimed was theirs to use. - Ambrose had opposed them because, in his eyes, Valentinian and his redoubtable mother Justina were heretics, clinging to the Arian doctrine, which preached that Christ was subordinate to God the Father. - Ambrose was a fervent believer in the doctrine that Father and Son were ‘one in substance’, and thus equal with each other, as declared at the First Council of Nicaea, presided over by Emperor Constantine in 325. - Ambrose must have felt that history was on his side, as Theodosius I, the emperor of the eastern half of the empire, had also declared Arianism heretical in 381 and imposed legislation to support the Nicene alternative and suppress the Arians. - He had included the Holy Spirit with Father and Son as the third in a Trinity. - In January 386, Valentinian tried to break the deadlock. - Ignoring the initiative of his co-emperor Theodosius in the east, he promulgated a law preserving the Arian faith in the western empire. - On the face of it, Ambrose was vulnerable, but Valentinian’s own position in the empire was also weak. - He was still only fourteen and had already been challenged by a usurper, Maximus, who now controlled Britain and Gaul. - The barbarian tribes hovered along the northern frontiers of the empire, only held in check by determined forays against their bases. - Unrest in Milan could not be risked. - Within the city, Ambrose had built up his own enthusiastic congregations, and when Valentinian used his troops in an attempt to seize a church at Easter 386, they were met by a crowd whipped up by the bishop. - Rather than risk a massacre, Valentinian withdrew, but it was a humiliating climbdown. - Milan remained tense, and Ambrose searched for a dramatic coup to push home his advantage. - Again, the coup centered on a church. - Ambrose was just completing a large new basilica, the Basilica Ambrosiana. - Something of his dominating personality can be sensed from its dedication, as this is the first Christian church known to have been named after its founder. - Now it was ready for consecration and the reception of the bones of saints. - Milan had experienced little persecution, and there was hardly any record of buried martyrs. - Yet Ambrose now surprised everyone by announcing that he knew where some local martyrs were buried, and a procession was organized to find them. - It followed with great anticipation where Ambrose led it, to a small martyrs’ memorial outside the city. - Here the bishop ordered digging to begin, and sure enough, two bodies began to emerge. - Ambrose later told his sister that the bones were intact with much blood on them. - They now had to be given authenticity, and Ambrose had prepared for this. - He pushed forward some victims of demonic possession, and a devil, confronted by the awesome power of saintly remains, cried out from one of them that the bodies were indeed those of martyrs. - It named them as Gervasius and Protasius. - Some old men were then produced to claim that they recognized these names as those of martyred Christians from many decades before. - The bodies were loaded up onto a cart, and the procession then set off back into the city with its sacred cargo. - There was more excitement when a blind man rubbed a cloth on the bones and then on himself, and his sight was restored. - Ambrose, in a sermon two days later when the bones were installed in the new basilica, claimed that their miraculous power confirmed that the Nicene version of the Trinity was the correct one. - Milan had a sophisticated intellectual elite, and Ambrose was widely mocked by the court and more educated citizens. - How could anyone know that he had not planted the bodies as well as the ‘possessed’ bystanders who had been paid to scream out at the right moment? - The miracle was simply too opportune, and surely the claim that it showed that God favored one doctrine over another was pure manipulation. - However, in a series of impassioned sermons, with hymn chanting to match, Ambrose grasped the protective power of the revealed martyrs for the city. - Those who scoffed were no better than the Jews who had questioned the miracle of the blind man being healed by Jesus (John 9:13–23). - The Jews were always a safe target, and Ambrose’s dramatic presentation quelled his critics. - Valentinian and Justina had been openly defied, and Maximus soon exploited their weakness. - The next year, he moved into Italy, forcing Valentinian and Justina to flee to the east. - Theodosius came to their support, counter-attacked, and entered Milan. - However, Ambrose was now sure of imperial approval from a fellow Nicene. - Despite having his own conflicts with Theodosius, Ambrose still lies near the high altar of his basilica with the bodies of his martyrs beside him. - Ambrose had created a precedent that was to be of vital importance in establishing cults in early medieval Europe. - This was to dramatize relics so that they became a public demonstration of sacred power. - And this power could be channeled to achieve the ends of the celebrant who controlled it. - Ambrose was manipulating centuries-old rituals of display in a completely new context, the proclamation of the majesty of God, and here Nicene orthodoxy, as supreme even over an emperor. - Ambrose was treading on dangerous ground. - In the same year, Theodosius issued a law forbidding corpses to be brought for burial within city walls. - Dead flesh was disgusting and dangerous. - The risk of contamination had always been recognized, and Theodosius was doing no more than reaffirming custom and good sense. - As the scoffing of Ambrose shows, the use of body parts to effect miracles also went deeply against the traditions and instincts of Greek and Roman society. - The philosophers had long taught that the appetites and desires of the living body subverted the effectiveness of rational thought and contemplation. - The use of bodies as a medium through which miracles could be achieved was beyond comprehension to anyone with an educated mind. - Christianity overcame these inhibitions through a development of an idea that was unique to it: there had been an original state of a spiritual flesh that had been lost at the Fall of Adam and Eve from Paradise. - ‘Our sacred books tell us,’ writes Augustine, ‘that this human flesh of ours was differently constituted before man’s sin... it was possible for this flesh never to suffer death.... This condition changed after man’s sin, and man’s flesh became what it has always been known to be in this distressful situation of mortality.’ - So there is a spiritual immortal form of human flesh from before the Fall, and a physical mortal one from after it. - Augustine is here, as so often, inspired by the Apostle Paul. - Paul saw Christ as acquiring a spiritual body after his Resurrection that would act as the ‘first fruits’ for others. - ‘As in Adam all men die [i.e. lose their original spiritual flesh], so in Christ all will be brought to life.’ - And so, too, will those who follow Christ. - Christ ‘will change our lowly body into the likeness of his glorious body, by the power which enables him even to subject all things to himself’ (Philippians 3:20). - So joining the Christian community gives one the chance to regain a pre-fallen state of one’s flesh and the hope of eternal life in heaven. - Paul makes it clear, in fact, that no one can enter heaven without the fallen mortal flesh being transformed. - ‘The perishable cannot possess immortality... the trumpet will sound and the dead will rise immortal and we shall be changed. - This perishable being must be clothed with the imperishable, and what is mortal must be clothed with immortality’ (1 Corinthians: 15). - The question that buzzed around the early Christian communities was whether this transformation from mortal to immortal could begin on earth before death. - In 2 Timothy 2:18, we are told that there were Christians who believed that their resurrection had already taken place on earth, although they are condemned for this. - Others believed that it was through receiving the body and blood of Christ at the Eucharist that one’s mortal body could move towards the ultimate transformation. - In the words of Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, at the beginning of the second century AD, the Eucharist is referred to as ‘the medicine of immortality and an antidote, that we not die, but live forever in Jesus Christ’. - At the end of the second century, Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, asks, ‘How can they affirm that the flesh is incapable of receiving life eternal, which flesh is nourished from the body and blood of the Lord and is a member of him [sic]?’. - There was a widespread belief that the Eucharist allowed believers to embark on the transition from a physical to a spiritual body even before death, through the absorption of Jesus’s body. - The process of transformation could be subverted by too much food and sex. - Fasting, for instance, helped maintain the body in a more spiritual form. - Tertullian, an austere Latin-speaking Christian from Carthage, who was known for the rigidity of his views and power of his eloquence, assures his listeners in his Treatise on Fasting that ‘they who are in the [mortal] flesh cannot please God’. - Anyone who cares too much for the pleasure of the flesh is doomed. - Through the ‘strait gate of salvation will slenderer flesh enter; more speedily will lighter flesh rise [to heaven]; longer in the sepulchre will drier flesh retain its firmness.’ - In other words, abstinence creates a body already primed to enter heaven. - The ascetic Church Fathers, some writing from their desert retreats, linked gluttony to lust. - The spirituality of the body would be lost if it was contaminated through intimate contact. - Augustine makes the same point in his De sancta virginitate. - The good features of marriage, such as the procreation of children, are merely temporal. - Those who adopt a life of virginity, on the other hand, achieve ‘participation in the life of angels and a foretaste of perpetual incorruption in the corruptible flesh’. - Even if resurrection in the flesh could not be achieved during one’s lifetime, one could make progress towards it. - The process of transformation from a physical to a spiritual body could also be achieved through martyrdom. - The experience was emotionally devastating for the early Christians who witnessed it. - It involved not only death but horrific mutilations of the martyrs’ bodies when these were burnt, crushed or mauled by animals in the arena. - Yet these sufferings were recast as providing an abrupt and glorious way of transforming the physical remnants of the body into a spiritual entity. - There is a fascinating early example of this belief in a letter from Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch. - Ignatius had been arrested for refusing to sacrifice in honour of the emperor and was being taken off to Rome for judgement and certain martyrdom, perhaps about AD 107. - The Christian community in Rome had some influential members who were prepared to plead with the authorities that Ignatius should not be killed. - Ignatius himself was having none of it. - Foreseeing the ravages of wild beasts in the arena he enthused: ‘Let me be ground by the teeth of wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of Christ.’ - Here the actual martyrdom itself is the means by which the body becomes the spiritual bread, transcending the material body that has been completely eliminated by the beasts. - A century later, in the early third century, Tertullian echoes this in suggesting that the very experience of martyrdom allows one to transcend the world of mortal flesh. - The transformed body would not feel pain. - ‘The leg does not feel the chain when the mind is in the heavens.’ - So there are stories of martyrs rejoicing in the midst of their pain, of Lawrence, martyred in Rome in 258, asking to be turned over onto the other side as he was roasted on the grid. - The glory of martyrdom anaesthetised any suffering experienced by the flesh that had itself moved beyond normal material sensation. - This gave the martyr’s body its sacred quality. - John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, recorded the story of a martyr by the name of Drusus who was burned to death. - ‘And the smoke which rose up stifled the demons who were flying up there, put the devil to flight, and purified the air.’ - The belief also developed that the body itself had become so transformed that it would remain uncorrupted by the torments of the persecutors. - The Old Testament provided a precedent in the three men thrown into the fiery furnace by Nebuchadnezzar (Book of Daniel, Chapter 3), which told how they were able to dance about in the furnace without harm. - The story was often represented on early Christian sarcophagi, as was the body of Jonah vomited from the whale and shown reclining naked on the shore, to make the point that the body is unblemished despite its ordeal. - In the New Testament, Luke 21:18–19 proved a particularly influential text. - ‘Some of you will be put to death.... But not a hair of your head shall be lost. By standing firm you will win true life for yourself.’ - Soon persecution stories were being written to reaffirm the incorruptible body as a reality. - Two surviving accounts of martyrdoms in Smyrna, the trading port in Asia Minor (the modern Izmir), make the point. - Polycarp, the bishop of the city, was especially revered because it was claimed that he had met John the Evangelist at the beginning of his life. - His martyrdom took place about AD 155. - When Polycarp was being burned, it was recorded that ‘the fire took the shape of a vaulted room, like a ship’s sail filled with the wind, and made a wall round the martyr’s body, which was in the middle not like burning flesh but like gold and silver refined in a furnace. - Indeed we were conscious of a wonderful fragrance, like a breath of frankincense or some other costly spice.’ - The ‘birthday’ of the martyrdom was celebrated each year and the bones were seen as ‘more valuable than precious stones and purer than wrought iron.’ - The martyrdom of Pionius, a victim of the persecutions under the emperor Decius in AD 250, ends with the scene at the funeral pyre in which a body is transformed: - After the fire had been extinguished, those of us who were present saw his body like that of an athlete in full array at the height of his powers. - His ears were not distorted; his hair lay in order on the surface of his head; and his beard was full as though with the first blossom of hair. - His face shone once again – wondrous grace! – so that the Christians were all the more confirmed in the faith, and those who had lost the faith returned dismayed and with fearful consciences. - As the saints and martyrs were destined for heaven in any case, they did not have to wait for the Last Judgement. - They could bypass the stench of decomposition that ordinary mortals suffered and which early Christian texts saw as one of the main evils of hell. - One could always recognise an unearthed corpse as that of a saint by the wholeness of his or her body. - The fifth-century historian Sozomen records how the body of the Old Testament prophet Zachariah had turned up in Palestine after its discoverers had been alerted to the tomb by a dream. - The centuries during which it had been buried had made no difference to the body. - ‘The prophet appeared sound; his hair was quite closely shorn, his nose was straight, his beard moderately grown, his head quite short, his eyes rather sunken, and concealed by the eyebrows.’ - Similarly Sulpicius Severus, a devotee and biographer of St Martin of Tours, surveyed the remains of his hero who had died in AD 397. - ‘His body was white as snow: so much that people remarked: Who could believe that he had ever worn sackcloth or been covered with ashes. - In fact, it seemed that the full glory of the coming resurrection and the new nature of the transfigured body was being displayed.’ - The triumph over putrefaction was complete and it was said that the flesh would exude sweetness – a foretaste of the atmosphere that would be found in heaven. - The body did not even have to be that of a martyr to possess flesh that had potency. - Four centuries later an eastern theologian, John of Damascus, provided his own reflections on the bodies of the saints in a treatise that would also b