Social Science Research Methods PDF

↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 how it might be solved (inductive Introduction to Social Science Research Process reasoning)? - accepted theory of how things Research is… - work and find evidence for it in A systematic process of collecting, the problem we examine analyzing, interpreting informatio...

↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 how it might be solved (inductive Introduction to Social Science Research Process reasoning)? - accepted theory of how things Research is… - work and find evidence for it in A systematic process of collecting, the problem we examine analyzing, interpreting information (deductive reasoning)? (data) - Goal: increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned - Our focus is on formal research, or research intended to be communicated to a scientific community Inductive reasoning is observations/findings > theory - To search for answers - To address a gap in the academic literature To understand why aspects of social life are the way they are To study a development in society like social media topic - Which research methods have been applied to it - What controversies exist about studied While you can automatically start that the research problem must be informed However, it is also ITERATIVE - Should we examine a problem and try to work out what caused it and What controversies exist about the topic Concepts and theories - Concepts are a key ingredient of theories. - The role of theory in research - What concepts and theories have been applied to it with a problem, Brayman states - What is already known about the the topic and/or how it has been Research is a cyclical process - observations/findings Read existing literature to find out: - - Deductive reasoning is theory > The Literature Review Why conduct social research - …or should we take a generally Almost all theories have at least one embedded concept, like bureaucracy, power, statues, ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - charisma, cultural capital, Hypothesis McDonaldization, and so on. - They help us organize our research It is - A logical supposition Research questions are crucial - A reasonable guess Because they guide: - An educated conjecture - Your literature search - You decision - Provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation Data collection - - May direct thinking to possible Structured methods of data sources of information necessary collection include questionnaires to resolve the research problem and interviews for use in survey and it subproblems studies - Less structured methods include Types of Research participation observation and - Qualitative Research: involves semi-structured interviewing: the looking at characteristics or researcher can keep an open mind qualities that cannot be entirely about what needs to be known reduced to numerical values - Quantitative Research: involves Assumption look at characteristics, or - An assumption is: condition that is qualities, that cannot be entirely taken for granted redacted to numerical data - Two general assumptions that - underlie most research projects - lawful and predictable - combination of quantitative and The phenomenon under investigation is somewhat Mixed Methods research: uses a qualitative methods - Action Research: focused on outcomes for the practitioner Cause and effect relationships can account for certain patterns observed in the phenomenon Theory and Problem Statements Theory and Research What type of theory ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Explanation of observed - regularities from observations - Merton (1967) - Grand theories - Highly abstract - Examples include structural Identifying a suitable research Middle range theories - problem - Address an important question - The answer should make a Useful for empirical difference research - Limited domain Advance the frontiers of knowledge by - Empiricism - Philosophical approach to - Suggesting possible applications Only knowledge gained through - sensory experiences is acceptable - Leading to new ways of thinking theorizing - Qualitative research/grounded theory functionalism - Generalizable inferences Paving the way for further research in the field Rigorous scientific testing of theories When considering a research problem - Positivist epistemology - - Accumulation of ‘facts’ as data - Naive empiricism? Select a research problem - self-enlightenment - Deductive and inductive theory - - used for this class) To contribute something new - Theory > data - - Explicit hypothesis to be To identify and interpret a relationship confirmed or rejected - To do more than compare two sets of data Deductionism (main theory to be - For more than - Quantitative research That has more than a yes/no answer Inductionism - Data > theory Finding a legitimate research problem - Look around you ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Read the literature - Objective, value-free research - Seek the advice of experts - Distinction between scientific and - Attend professional conferences - Choose a topic that intrigues and - - normative statements motivates you You can’t study the whole population, but Choose a topic that others will you can study a random sample from find interesting and worthy of which you can get a generalizable attention conclusion Be realistic on what you can accomplish Realist epistemology - Writing a Purpose Statement - - Describe your problem or question - independently of our the project that your purpose perceptions - Say precisely what you mean - - Empirical (naive?) realism - Close correspondence Absolute honesty and between reality and terms integrity are the rule used to describe it Reflect an open mind about the - solution - External reality exists Think through the feasibility of statement implies - Natural science methods appropriate clearly and completely - Similarities to positivism Direct knowledge of the social world Edit your work - Critical realism - Theoretical terms meditate our knowledge of reality - Epistemology and Ontology Positivist Epistemology - Application of natural science methods to social science research - Phenomenalism: knowledge via the senses - Deductivism: theory-testing - Inductivism: theory-building Underlying structures generate observable events Interpretivist epistemology - Subject matter of the social sciences (people) demands non-positivist methods ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Concerned with the theory and method of the interpretation of the human action - Constructionist ontology - Hermeneutic-phenomenological meanings are constructed by social tradition actors Verstehen: interpretative - understanding of social action (weber 1947) - Continually accomplished and revised - Researchers’ accounts of events Attempts to see world from the are also constructions– many actor’s perspective: subjective alternative interpretations reality (Bogdan and Taylor 1975) - Social phenomena and their - influenced by symbolic Language and representation shape our perceptions of reality interactionism Writing a Purpose Statement Ontological considerations - Social ontology: the nature of social entities - What kind of objects exist in the - clearly and completely - statement implies Do social entities exist independently of our perceptions - Is social reality external to social actors or constructed by them? - Social phenomena confront us as external facts - Reflect an open mind about the solution Edit your work Delineating the Problem Every problem has a setting to establish pre-existing social world - - - Individuals are born into a Absolute honesty and integrity are the rule - Objective ontology Say precisely what you mean - of them? - Think through the feasibility of the project that your purpose social world? - Describe your problem or question Social forces and rules exert pressure on actors to conform - Identify a general theoretical or conceptual framework - State a priori hypotheses, if appropriate - Define the terms ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - state the underlying assumptions - Identify delineations and poses in advance, usually in limitations if applicable conjunction with the overall - - Hypotheses that a researcher These comprise the setting research problem or question and of the problem its subproblems, are known as Relational statements about the concepts that you are exploring priori hypotheses - with the proposed research Remember that researchers aren't setting out to prove their hypotheses Dividing the Research Problem into - Subproblems - Ultimately, a priori hypotheses are nothing more than tentative Most problems are too big to propositions tackle with just one question - Identify subproblems Identifying the general concepts and possibly also specific variable that are Identifying a Relevant Theoretical of the focus of the investigation Conceptual Framework - Theoretical framework: A pre - For example existing or newly proposed set of - Confidence level → effort → concepts and principles that, in combination - performance - Confidence level (IV) Conceptual Framework: Key influences effort concepts and inter-concept (mediator) connections that, taken as a whole, - Effort (mediator) provide a helpful lens through influences performances which the researcher can look at quality (DV) certain processes and smn smn - meaning High confidence → more effort → great performance Stating Hypotheses - - Hypotheses are intelligent, Low confidence → less effort → okay performance reasonable guesses about how a research problem or question might be resolved ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Quantitative Research Design the measure consistent What is quantitative research? - research - with observers Takes a deductive view of the relationship between theory and Has a preference for the natural Validity - concept. There are different Has an objectivist conception of social reality Concerned with whether a measure of a concept really measures that science approach - types of validity - Types: The main methods of Quantitative data collection Questionnaires and surveys - Quantitative content analysis - Secondary data analysis - Structured observation Causality - Generalization - Replication criterion in the future - Construct: conforms to The critique of quantitative research - Researchers treat people and social institutions in the same way as the world of nature Take the following factors into accounts - accuracy - indicators consistent? The reliance on instruments and procedures limits the connection Stability: is the measure Internal reliability: are the The measurement process involves an artificial sense of precision and between research and everyday stable over time? - Predictive: likely to be theoretical expectations Reliability is concerned with the - Concurrent: supported by supported by relevant consistency of measures. - Convergent: supported by - What is reliability? - - relevant criterion today research - Face: reflects the concept - The main preoccupations of quantitative Measurement - results from other methods - - Inter-rater reliability: is life - The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 view of social life that is Why write a literature review independent of people’s lives RRL! - Looking for gaps to fill - Synthesis Theorizing - methods - Establish what is already known - Develop an argument - Provide a solid foundation for the research - Learn from researchers’ mistakes - Learn about different theoretical approaches Understanding the Role of the Literature Review 1. Discover if someone has already answered your research question Evaluating online sources Check: - The author - 2. Find new ideas, perspectives, and site? What is their approaches motivation for publishing 3. Learn about other researchers who conduct work in the same area 4. Identify controversial issues and gaps in understanding that have not yet been resolved it? - The location - - may not have known existed Evaluate, Organize, Synthesize - 8. Interpret and make sense of your on the data - you 9. Bolster your confidence that your topic is one worth studying Organize the ideas to address the problem findings and tie your results to the work of those who have preceded Determine for yourself whether the conclusions are justified based 7. Discover established measurement tools When was the site last updated? methodological and design issues in 6. Uncover sources of data that you Where is the site located? Currency - 5. Learn how others have handled studies similar to your own. Who is the author of the Part 2 - Synthesize what you’ve learned - ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ Identify common themes ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Show how approaches to the topic have changed over 10. Ask others for advice and time - feedback Compare and contrast theoretical positions Constructing and Developing a Conceptual - Describe general trends Framework - Identify and explain - The researcher discrepant or contradictory - Study goals findings - Macro-sociopolitical context - Related social, cultural, Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature political, economic, and Review ideological contexts 1. Get the proper psychological - orientation Macro sociopolitics and how they affect your research a. Know what you want to do and your interactions with 2. Develop an organizational plan or participants outline - 3. Emphasize Relatedness Your social location/identity and a. How the literature is related to the problem positionality - Tacit theory 4. Use logical transitions - Study setting and context 5. Know the difference between - Formal theory describing the literature and - plagiarizing “Formal theory—the set of established theories that 6. Always give credit where credit is are combined in relation to due your ways of framing the 7. Minimize your use of direct core constructs embodied quotations from other people’s in your research writings questions—constitutes the 8. Summarize what you have said theoretical framework of 9. Remember that your first draft your study” (p. 46) will almost certainly NOT be your last draft Theory - Personal and professional beliefs ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - “...informal and even unconscious ways that we all think about, mae sense of, and explain the world and the various contexts and people within it” Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework Based on existing theory/theories in the literature which has been tested and validated by other scholars It is based on the concepts which It is in the form of a model that pivots a study, with its exponents and the results of the study. A researchers own constructed model to explain the relationship between the main concepts in the study It is well developed, designed and accepted Offers a focal point for approaching a little known research in a specific field of inquiry It is made up of interrelated theories with deduced propositions Used to test theories, to control and predict the situation within the context of the research inquiry SURVEY Its design is not accepted, but it’s a proposal of the researcher’s answer to the research problem Intro - Survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions - Surveys are the most popular form of social research because of their versatility, efficiency, and generalizability - Many survey datasets, like the General Social Survey, are available for social scientists to use in teaching and research. Versatility ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - A well designed survey can - enhance our understanding of just about any social issue - too easy to construct - Computer technology has made surveys even more versatile It might be said that surveys are For a survey to succeed it must minimize four types of error - Poor measurement: presenting clear and Efficiency - - - interesting questions in a Surveys are popular because data well organized can be collected from many people questionnaire will help to at relatively low cost and relatively reduce measurement error quickly. by encouraging respondents Surveys are efficient because to answer questions many variables can be measured carefully and to take without substantially increasing seriously the request to smth smth participate in the survey Technology has been a mixed - blessing for survey efficiency Nonresponse: a growing problem in survey research, although it is a problem Generalizability - that varies between Survey methods lend themselves to probability sampling from large - - particular survey designs - Inadequate coverage of populations the population: a poor Survey research is appealing when sampling frame can sample generalizability is a central invalidate the results of an research goal otherwise well-designed In fact, survey research is often survey the only means available for - Sampling error: the developing a representative process of random sampling picture of the attitudes and can result in differences characteristics of a large between the population characteristics of the sample member and the Errors in survey research population simply on the basis of chance ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 Why is writing survey questions difficult - Survey questions must be asked of Questionnaires vs Interviews - many people, not just one - Questionnaires are self-administered The same survey question must be - used with each person, not Interview schedule: involves an interviewer asking questions tailored to the specifics of a given conversation - - Designing Questionnaires Survey questions must be - Build on existing instruments understood in the same way by - Refine and test questions people who differ in many ways - Add interpretive questions You will not be able to rephrase a - What do respondents know? survey question if someone doesn’t - What relevant experiences do the understand it - respondents have? Survey respondents don’t know you - How consistent are the and so can; be expected to share respondents’ attitudes, and do the nuances of expression that they express some larger help you and your friends and perspective or ideology family to communicate - Are respondents actions consistent with their expressed Writing survey questions attitudes? - Avoid confusing phrasing - - Avoid making either disagreement or agreement disagreeable - How strongly are the attitudes held? - People want to avoid being Order the questions - seen as disagreeable survey is about, if it's Each response should be interesting, how easy it is phrased to seem as socially - approved as the others - First question signals what First question should be connected to the primary Minimize fence-sitting and floating purpose of the (minimize neutrality) survey—easy, interesting, - Despite prevalence of apply to everyone in the floating, people often have sample an opinion but are reluctant - Consider translation to express ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈ ↳₊❏❜=⌕ *DEV 193.2* ༉‧₊˚✧ 『 ✎ 』 - Reliable: convey intended meaning - Concrete: no new info - Accurate: free of errors - Culturally appropriate: convey appropriate message to target population - Equivalent ┈ ⋞ 〈 ⏣ 〉 ⋟ ┈