RXRS Drugs -- Paleolithic and Neolithic LECTURE PDF

Lecture 2 — Paleolithic and Neolithic i. Antiquity and drugs in the Paleolithic age Basics The paleolithic is the STONE AGE and the first appearance of HOMINIDS (around 12000 years ago) ○ Neandertal = SEXUAL DIMORPHISM ○ Cro magnon — MODERN HUMAN BEINGS Paleolith...

Lecture 2 — Paleolithic and Neolithic i. Antiquity and drugs in the Paleolithic age Basics The paleolithic is the STONE AGE and the first appearance of HOMINIDS (around 12000 years ago) ○ Neandertal = SEXUAL DIMORPHISM ○ Cro magnon — MODERN HUMAN BEINGS Paleolithic people were the hunter gatherers of the caveman days They were primarily POLYGYNOUS with some monogamy ○ Skeletal remains show that sexual dimorphism was more in Lower paleolithic humans i.e. HOMO ERECTUS than in the modern day humans ○ Modern day humans → less polygynous ○ Lower paleolithic humans were more polygynous (many wives?) because species that have the most sexual dimorphism = more polygynous Nomadic — this means they didn’t like to stay in one place and liked to move around a lot Religion was APOTROPAIC — involving sympathetic magic Morphology Highly ADAPTABLE because they needed to be ○ Climate was variable and changed a lot ○ Population was very spread out ○ < 1 million people in the world They were averagely short people, not more than 5’7”, with ages no more than 35 years of age Infant mortality was 20-30% Combination of nomad stress + climate + warfare = these three things: ○ Being short ○ Dying young (presumably, at 50) ○ Infant mortality rate Tools and culture The paleolithics had the first evidence of tools ever being constructed Tools made out of WOOD, BONE, and STONE ○ Pebble tools — selected materials used to form specific tools i.e. hammers and stuff  ○ Chopping tools — advanced pebble material and made from sharp edge flakes ○ Point tools — refinement of the aforementioned Changes to techniques = more of a cutting/serrated edge Projectile point — a sharp point tied to a spear, arrow or ATLAL SHAFT Tools held with it a cultural value. They represented the first specialized profession For culture, the paleoliths were NATURALISTIC or very fond of nature. ○ Lived on food that could only be found or hunted in nature ○ Solely DEPENDENT on nature for SURVIVAL Hunted meat Gathered food (like plants and stuff) Firewood for warmth and cooking Materials i.e. stone for tools, cloth and shelter Leisure time was abundant and unparalleled in later societies LOW POP DENSITY — because of: ○ Low BF % ○ Infants dying a lot aka infanticide ○ Intense endurance exercise ○ Weaning infants ○ Nomad lifestyle Religion RITUAL — activities involving gestures, words and objects. It is performed a certain place and with a set sequence ○ Common feature of all human societies TRADITION — belief or behavior passed down within a society ○ Symbolic meaning ○ Significance with origins in the past ○ Also refers to beliefs that are PREHISTORIC — with lost or arcane knowledge Exists from time immemorial RELIGION — spiritual beliefs and behavior patterns that combine ritual, tradition and spirituality Religious behavior combines spirituality, myths and magic ○ ANIMISM — objects, places and animals as possess a SPIRITUAL ESSENCE and have “animation” and are alive ○ TOTEMISM — belief in a connection with another physical organism ○ APOTROPAIC — beliefs around vanquishing evil Observances were out of superstition or tradition in order to ward off bad spirits and demons and the like i.e. crossing fingers and giving offerings to spirits ○ INTENTIONAL BURIAL — concern for the dead is always present in life Megaliths MEGALITH — giant stone used to make other structures, either alone or with more stones This is how things were made without mortar and concrete They were used for lots of things i.e. tombs, terraces, celestial places, religious uses and trade centers Took lots of time to build and was labor intensive ○ No one knows why you’d put that much energy and time into something that could eventually get you killed ○ Great cultural value if you risked so much to build things out of this Some early medicines and drugs OATSRAW GOLDENROD CODONOPIS ROOT BLUE VERVAIN COLTSFOOT SKULLCAP WILD CHERRY BARK MARSHMALLOW ROOT SCISANDRA BERRY HONEYSUCKLE ANGELICA ROOT HOREHOUND SLIPPERY ELM ASTRAGALUS ROOT CRAMP BARK Drugs used for: ○ Social interaction ○ Sex ○ Cognitive performance ○ Recovery and stress relief ○ Self medication for psychological distress ○ Therapy ○ Out of (sensory) curiosity — expansion of experimental horizon ○ Euphoria and pleasure seeking Paleoethnobotany (plant stuff) ANALGESIC — pain relief and mild euphoria → POPPY ANODYNE — pain relief but not as strong as analgesic → ATROPA ANTIBACTERIAL — kill bacteria → ATUN TREE BARK  ANTHELMINTIC — kill intestine worms → CAMPHOR ANTI MICROBIAL — kill microbes → HOLLYHOCK ANTIPYRETIC — kill fever → WORMWOOD ANTI TUSSIVE — kills coughing → LAVENDER ASTRINGENT — prevents bleeding → OLIVE LEAF ○ From tissue contraction CARMINATIVE — eructation of stomach gas → MINT CATHARTIC — powerful purgative → INDIAN CINNAMON FLOWER DEMULCENT — relief for irritation → VALERIAN ROOT DIURETIC — increase urine → ST. JOHN’S WORT ○ Like alcohol and caffeine EXPECTORANT — increase bronchial secretion and expulsion → LICORICE HYPOTENSIVE — reduce bp → THYME Paleopharmacology Field is devoted to EXPLORING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD FOR medicinal plants Identification of chemicals in plants → potential for extracted or made medicine Approach compares archaeological data with ethnographic and plant chemistry data ○ Researchers look at specific diseases treated with plants → identify what compounds are physiologically active Traditional medicines TRADITIONAL MEDICINE — any form of indigenous healthcare sys with ○ Ancient roots ○ Cultural bonds ○ Healers ○ Theoretical construct ○ ETHNOMEDICINE — study of traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in organisms Practiced by a lot of ethnic groups Includes how to reconstruct past medicine practices → look at archaeologic record along with existing traditional societies ETHNOBOTANICAL MEDICINE — use of PLANTS in medicine by certain ethnic or sociocultural groups ○ Plants = botany ○ ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY — study of traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in organisms Basically the ethnomedicine definition HERBALISM — study of botany and the use of plants → intent is for medicine and diet use ○ Plants always been the basis for medicine throughout human history ○ Listed under traditional medicine or alternative medicine  ○ i.e. fungal bee products, minerals and shells, animal parts FOLK MEDICINE — healing practice of BODY PHYSIOLOGY in order to preserve health ○ Transmitted informally as general knowledge ○ Practiced in cultures having prior experience ○ Also referred to as: Traditional medicine Alternative medicine Indigenous medicine Complementary medicine Natural medicine ○ EARLIEST form of medical and pharmacological practices in human society Medicinal plants and practice Paleolithic societies were usually found on the FLORA and FAUNA ○ Nomadic lifestyle = more plant diversity ○ Localized to specific areas during migration season Women + elderly = PRIMARY GATHERERS → looked after family health Plant materials important for curing disease Fund of knowledge passed down ORALLY through generations and generations Many individuals had to experience with TRIAL AND ERROR to find specific cures from plants, and either died or had bad experiences ○ Hallucinogenic experiences ○ Diarrhea ○ Vomiting ○ Sweating ○ Nausea Cradle of human kind SOUTH AFRICA is one of the richest temperate flora zones globally Richest in plant diversity = excellent HISTORIC RECORD OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINE Home to the Sterkfontein Caves, which are called the Cradle of Humankind from UNESCO. This is where the oldest of our ancestors were discovered, a many 2.3 million years ago Ritual plants and the types of plants Plants were one of three things: 1. MEDICINAL 2. SPIRITUAL 3. COMMUNAL  1. MEDICINAL MIGRATION ○ GOLDENTHREAD — used by Native Americans to treat tuberculosis and harvested during flowering season ○ DODDER — cousin of the goldenthread; used by Mongolians to relieve asthma 2. SPIRITUAL MIGRATION ○ CANNABIS AKA WEED — in use for thousands of years esp in ancient Central and South Asia i.e. for burial offerings ○ HARMAL — used by West India, Iran and Andea 3. COMMUNAL MIGRATION ○ GRAPES! — used for wine (7 mo) ○ HOPS — used for beer (3-4 mo) Early wine and beer Ancestral early hominids (humans) most likely making wines, beers and other fermented beverages ○ Wild fruits, roots, honey and herbs came from their local environment Lots of brewing and fermenting didn’t begin until later in human history → earliest ancestors gathering grapes and hops in the woods Fermented beverages SEASONAL in our earliest history: ○ Lots of communal effect ○ Medicinal properties were found out later in time Traditional healers TRADITIONAL HEALERS — spiritual leaders who served the health needs of the people; people who did the healing ○ DOULA — assisted during and after childbirth ○ Ceremonial and ritual leaders also go in here SHAMAN — only person who could access and influence the world of good and evil spirits → enters trance state when conversing with them ○ Practiced divination and healing ORAL HISTORY which passed down the former’s knowledge onto the latter generation Women were usually healers and shamans DRUID — priest, magician or soothsayer (basically someone associated with magical powers) ○ SOOTHSAYER — predicts the future with magical, intuitive or rational means Fortune teller Druids are mystical and religious leaders ○ Legal authorities, lore keepers, medical professionals and political advisors are some of these ○ Organized worship and sacrifices ○ Understood celestial movement ○ Tracked solstice i.e. knew when animals would return and plants would bloom  Said to be CREATORS of written language, art and ceremony ○ Prevented by doctrine to record their knowledge in prose BANDURI — female druids Considered most powerful prophesizers and fortune tellers, as well as poisoning people Were also healers but sought out for HERBALIST SKILLS ○ Modern day scholars credit poison and antidote knowledge to druids Holy incense Also known as head spices, 7 were discovered to TWEAK THE HUMAN BRAIN Head spices formerly used by SHAMANS and the HOLY PEOPLE ○ Found as burial goods from sites MYRRH — functions like opium and targets the mu and delta opiod brain receptors FRANKINCENSE — functions like Valium; contains dehydroabietic acid → targets GABA receptors SAFFRON — has a GABA antagonist, and safrole → makes MDMA CINNAMON — contains safrole and eugenol → for MDMA AGARWOOD — sedative and analgesic SPIKENARD — boosts serotonin, dopamine and GABA ○ Memory enhancer POMEGRANATE — serotonin, melatonin and trypthamide → general relaxation ii. Antiquity and drugs in the Neolithic age Basics If paleolithic was the OLD stone age, then neolithic was the NEW STONE AGE People lived in small tribes with multiple bands or lineages ○ SETTLEMENT — permanently or seasonally inhabited ○ This is when cities began to appear During the new stone age, pottery and written languages appeared FARMING limited to a certain number of wild and domesticated plants ○ EINKORN WHEAT ○ MILLET ○ SPELT ANIMAL DOMESTICATION of things like dogs, sheep, goats, cattle and pigs Domestication of LARGE ANIMALS = INCREASE in social inequality nearly everywhere ○ Possession of livestock = competition between households = WEALTH Families and households were still very INDEPENDENT ECONOMICALLY ○ Household was seen as the “center of all life” Complex society and organization COMPLEX SOCIETY — social formation described as formative or developed state Divided into 4 segments: 1. DIVISION OF LABOR — members of society had to belong to a certain activity and craft i.e. someone to farm, someone to lead construction etc. 2. TRADING — goods and services are exchanged for food, things and services i.e. money for a new cow 3. CUSTOMS AND LAWS — daily life was kept in control. Behaviors were controlled, punishment and reward are standardized i.e. if someone steals a cow that’s not theirs, they are put in jail. Whoever returns the cow is given money as a reward 4. POP SIZE — larger pop = more complex and specialized people become Hierarchy Complex societies needed to shift to AGRICULTURAL MEANS to provide the “surplus” and the resources needed to support a SOCIAL ELITE ○ Social elite was non food producing (at least, as of now) HIERARCHY — this is the ruling elite which is supported by bureaucrats and the rich higher ups ○ Stations include admin buildings and elite households, as well as clothes and jewelry to show that they are of high class Transition to the neolithic ENVIRONMENT and POP PRESSURE forced people to: 1. Domesticate animals → food 2. Cultivate and grow crops → food and medicine and stuff 3. Participate in complex societies → building, trading, working together Complex societies i.e. technological advances, government and religion Chances in the ways people sustained themselves and the social structures that emerged RISE OF ALCOHOL and other consumables i.e. WEED and OPIUM SOCIAL COMPETITION MODEL — having a wealth of resources = engagement in high risk production i.e. cultivation and domestication SUBSISTENCE STRATEGY — there are five basic ones, which incorporate methods to produce, exchange, and consume things people need to survive 1. FOR SURVIVAL 2. These are the ways people get food from environment 3. FORAGING — gathering food from plants and undomesticated animals 4. PASTORALISM — domesticating animals for FOOD → free range Not reliant on growing crops 5. HORTICULTURE — cultivates plants for personal use → CROP ROTATION  Not reliant on growing food but growing enough to sustain life within group 6. AQUACULTURE — farming of “aqua” related creatures i.e. crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic plants and animals 7. AGRICULTURE — large scale production of food (not just plants) → for big pop Agriculture and delayed returns IMMEDIATE RETURN — hunter gatherer societies ○ CONSUMPTION OVER ACCUMULATION i.e. eating food with everyone present on the day they find it ○ This is the old way of doing things DELAYED RETURN — agricultural societies ○ ACCUMULATION BEFORE CONSUMPTION Delay between labor investment and consumption = good hierarchal structure Hierarchies have the ability to distribute work, control product and assets More work = more product = more food = success ○ This is the new way of doing things ○ Agriculture is a delayed return investment → potential nutritional payoff is DISCOUNTED because you never know when a plant won’t be available anymore Unforeseen events may reduce its future availability Future discounting FORAGER Pros ○ LOW RISK HIGH REWARD ○ Nutritional advantages from hunting and gathering ○ More muscle (bigger biceps are always a plus) Cons ○ WORSE technology ○ EGALITARIAN — few specialists FARMER Pros ○ GOOD technology ○ Complex society with specialization ○ Live longer Cons ○ HIGH RISK LOW REWARD  ○ Nutritional disadvantages with cultivation (no hunter gatherer) ○ POP PRESSURE ○ Hierarchy and WAR Remember that cultivation was motivated by ADVANTAGES OF COMPETITIVE FEASTING — this provided political power → pursuit of self interests Psychoactive substances i.e. weed and grand feasts was the rationale between future discounting Feasting FEASTS — this was an important sociopolitical event, not just eating tons of food Wine and beer served the purpose of: ○ Passing on ideologies ○ Cohesion ○ Drawing social differentiation within the group ○ Inclusion of new food and technologies Feasts need PRODUCTION and STORAGE ahead of time, for large quantities of food and drink ○ Many domesticated food = COSTLY STATUS SYMBOL → helped lead to end of egalitarianism via grand feasting of low quality food (in terms of nutrition) Successful organizers of feasts able to get power through feasts → reproductive success Tradition of a marriage banquet is a result of feasting custom as well as funeral banquets Weed — the first cultivated fiber plant Weed, or cannabis, was first recorded in present day CHINA 12000 years ago Found at a site near Yuan Shuan artifacts, along with hemp cord pottery and a stone beater for the hemp ○ Next to it was things like fishing nets, clothes, rope and paper Weed seeds found in FOOD MIDDENS → stored as FOOD SOURCE or hemp oil Abundance of weed in the early records = it was one of the first and oldest known human agricultural crops Funerary rituals: ○ Funerals in Asia and the Middle East were chock full of weed, as mourners burned plants with a lot of tetrahydrocannabinol as PART OF MORTUARY RITUAL ○ Burnt in large braziers → gets crowd to inhale a lot of weed smoke ○ Researchers using gas chromatography or mass spec isolated and identified cannabinoid compounds in old incense burners ○ Chemical signature showed a higher level of THC than is usually found in wild plants → sample was from actively cultivated weed Neolithic revolution  SUMER — earliest known civilization in Mesapotamia (present day Iraq and Kuwait) ○ Lots of cuneiform tablets from Nineveh translated and found. Most of these were prescriptions, but some are labeled “treatises” for diseases like fevers, worms, veneral and lesions ○ World’s FIRST ASPIRIN made from willow bark → recognized for special effects on fever, pain and inflammation Beer as wages: ○ In Sumer, lots of the people enjoyed the benefits of urban life ○ People exchanged goods for money, played board games, and recorded daily life on clay tablets in cuneiform, which was probably a language ○ CUNEIFORM — made by pressing stylus into a clay tablet; a lot like hieroglyphics One popular FORM OF PAYMENT was beer ○ “Pay stubs” = common document throughout ancient Mesapotamia Babylon: ○ Babylon was the most famous city in ancient Mesapotamia, called the “jewel” and thought of as the cradle of civilization by some ○ Earliest known record of APOTHECARY — ancient pharmacy and a place where drugs were made and sold Healers were priests + pharmacists + physician all in one Cuneiform tablets translated which contain prescription for making nearly 365 unique drugs ○ BROTHELS entered history in Babylon. There, people could buy sex, fetish, wine and opium, and weed was used in braziers (gas burner) as incense ○ The Babylonian chemist: TAPPUTI-BELATEKALLIM — noblewoman and perfumer was mentioned in a Babylonian cuneiform from 3000 years ago Making perfume is a very technical process Perfume is held in high esteem in the ancient times Perfume had four main uses: COSMETICS RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL RITUALS MAGIC MEDICINE ESSENTIAL OIL — used to treat infections, and prepared by perfumers who acted like early pharmacists Phoenicia PHOENICIA — ancient civilization along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea The people here brought us SEAFARING and were the FIRST INTERNATIONAL TRADERS ○ Ship building ○ Glass making  ○ Dye making ○ Making luxury and common goods (artisan) TYRIAN — a purple dye made and used in royalty robes (remember, purple was the color all the rich people wore!), and giving Phoenicia the name by which we know their culture today ○ Dye would stain the skin of workers = name Birthplace of the Alphabet — alphabet was the basis for most western languages today DENTISTRY was made here ○ IVORY for fake teeth + gold wires ○ NO PAIN RELIEVERS OPIUM AND WINE = pain reliever instead Curious case of Pontus Black Sea had lots of weird natural resources with POWERFUL HEALTH CHARACTERISTICS ○ Lots of venomous snakes and insects ○ HIGHER than normal volume of poisonous plants AGARI — shamans associated with Scythian nomads to the north of Black Sea → experts in antidotes and poisons ○ VIPERIDS — use of tiny amount of viper venom from Caucasus mountains → slows hemorrhage from arrow wounds Poisonous flora and fauna PONTIC HONEY — wild honey from bees from the nectar of rhododendrons and 🦆 oleander → deadly neurotoxins for mammals PONTIC DUCKS — poisonous ducks coming from a diet of baneful plants PONTIC BEAVERS — testicles needed for treating fever, immunity, improving sex drive, and perfume ○ CASTOREUM — beaver musk gland → lots of salicylic acid (ACTIVE INGREDIENT IN ASPIRIN) from willow bark eaten by beavers Frozen in the alps: Otzi the neolithic iceman Otzi was a mummy preserved by the ice of the Otzal Valley alps ○ WET MUMMY — his tissues, bones and organs were well preserved → insights into state of health when alive Demographic data ○ Age → based on femur study, between 42-45 ○ Height → 5’2” ○ Weight → 110 lbs, very lean and shredded Tattoos and medicine:  ○ Tattoos were found on the mummified body → made from fine incisions with charcoal rubbing ○ Tattoos served a THERAPEUTIC PURPOSE Location of tattoos follow acupuncture lines → charcoal = soothing pain of arthritis ○ Miscellaneous: Medicine — tree fungus → used to treat intestinal hook worms Hop hornbeam flowers → anti inflammatory medicine Drug food Drugs were ingested as PART OF A FOOD or DRINK from our ancestors EFFECT ON MOOD confused with nutritional benefits Distinction between drugs and food today is drawn along the lines of NUTRITIONAL VALUE ○ Food affects brain chemistry in different ways ○ Brain chemistry can change to crave a particular food Healing herbs from history: ○ OREGANO ○ CUMIN ○ GARLIC ○ GINGER ○ RED PEPPER ○ BLACK PEPPER ○ ROSEMARY ○ BASIL ○ CINNAMON ○ CLOVES ○ ALLSPICE ○ SAFFRON ○ TURMERIC ○ MINT ○ MUSTARD Ancient drug routes 1. EXTERNAL APPLICATION ○ Applied directly to the skin (externally) ○ Raw meat, oil and honey 2. FUMIGATION (fumes) ○ Through active or passive inhalation (breathing in of fumes) ACTIVE — directly smoking PASSIVE — secondhand smoke and flame exposure 3. ORAL  ○ Through the mouth ○ Ingesting either raw drug parts or mixture 4. RECTAL ○ Through the rectum ○ Suppositories or enemas Psychoactive substances People today consume psychoactive substances, not just weed and alcohol. This includes caffeine, chocolate and sugar PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES — changes our thought or emotion through biological action upon CNS ○ When consumed they are known as drugs ○ Not all drugs are consumed orally Ancient users may not have perceived modern day drugs as “drugs” ○ Ancient users saw them as desirable and good tasting Psychoactive substances shaped civilization — played a role in COLONIZATION OF CONQUERED LANDS ○ Used to entice people into labor arrangement ○ Used as reward for labor and cultivation ○ Balance between mood and motivation = critical in MASS CULTIVATION Psychoactive substances help attain this balance ○ Psychoactive substances used in many cultures i.e. major trade goods Typically the most HIGHLY VALUED goods → given religious and social significance Cultivation and production of psychoactive substances Historical record shows cultivation and domestication of these substances = served many psychosocial roles in early civilization These substances were being made in large quantities from Neolithic sites in FARMING: ○ WEST and EAST ASIA — alcohol and weed ○ SOUTH AMERICA — alcohol, coca (cocaine), tobacco and cacao ○ EUROPE — added opium to Western Asian crop complex ○ AFRICA — kola Early trade networks between Asian, Europe and Africa moved staple crops and cultivation techniques Psychoactive substances shown to REDUCE STRESS OF LIVING IN GROUPS Psychoactive substances make social constraints bearable → individual feels INDEPENDENT while in society Benefits from periodic use of substances include: ○ Feeling INCLUDED in social group  ○ ENJOYMENT and fun ○ CREATIVITY ○ PAIN RELIEF and no anxiety ○ RELAXATION ○ CIRCADIAN RHYTHM control ○ Improved MEMORY and concentration Population control through substances Psychoactive substance use was not a problem shared by a minority of people Psychoactive substance use was important and a routine shaper of behavior for post Neolithic humans Promoted prosocial behavior and conformity to social constraints → reduction of communal living, work and status related stress Substances promote tolerance of impersonal social structures and behaviors required of individuals living in a community In terms of FUTURE DISCOUNTING: ○ Psychoactive substances give SUBSTITUTIVE REWARDS in the people that made commitments to work for UNCERTAIN FUTURE REWARDS Used to elicit appropriate emotional responses Psychotropics PSYCHOTROPIC or psychoactives — substance that CHANGES BRAIN FUNCTION → alteration in ○ Mood ○ Consciousness ○ Cognition ○ Behavior Drug use among humans can be traced to prehistory and beyond ○ Some say that the urge to change one’s consciousness is a primary drive, just like thirst, hunger and sex History shows us that the desire to ALTER STATE OF MIND is UNIVERSAL across time and culture Psychoactives can be classified as one of the four: ○ EUPHORIC — produces a lot of PLEASURE and happiness ○ STIMULANT — activates CNS → makes you feel ALERT i.e. caffeine or pre workout ○ SEDATIVE — “sedates” you; calm and SLEEP INDUCING sensations i.e. alcohol Sometimes can result in PERCEPTUAL dream images ○ HALLUCINOGEN — produces distinct ALTERATIONS in perception and SENSATION OF SPACE AND TIME Emotional states change Three psychoactive substances: (1) TOBACCO, (2) RHATT, and (3) BETEL NUT  ○ Use precedes AGRICULTURE and DOMESTICATION ○ Widespread in hunter gatherer times ○ Had RITUAL PURPOSES i.e. Shaman trances and vision quests ○ CULTIVATION and ARTIFICIAL SELECTION Perception altering Mood altering What’s the difference between perception and mood altering? ○ PERCEPTION — this is how you SEE things Stimulates CNS Makes you go OUT OF REALITY Distort perception Thought alteration Mood variations DREAMLIKE STATE Shamans needed to operate this ○ MOOD Stimulates BRAIN REWARD PATHWAY Highly PRIZED due to its effects Amicability (nice) Stress reduction Feeling of freedom Shamans not needed to operate this Perception altering categories HALLUCINOGEN ○ PSYCHEDELIC — manifests a hidden and real aspect of the mind ○ DISSOCIATIVE — helps you dissociate from the body Makes analgesia, amnesia and catalepsy ○ DELIRIANT — makes you delirious; extreme CONFUSION and can’t control your actions ENTACTOGEN — feelings of being “intact” or being EMOTIONALLY CLOSE ENTHEOGENS — mystical and magical experiences ○ EUPHORIANT ones promote feeling of wellbeing ○ HIGH AFFINITY for serotonin receptors