Rural Livestock Production PDF

Premium Vector \| Livestock Farm animal, fresh meat logo design template Vector **NPA -- Rural Skills** **SCQF Level 5** **F6AJ 11/ASP001** [**https://www.nationalbeefassociation.com/**](https://www.nationalbeefassociation.com/) **SUMMARY **  This Unit allows candidates to develop some of the...

Premium Vector \| Livestock Farm animal, fresh meat logo design template Vector **NPA -- Rural Skills** **SCQF Level 5** **F6AJ 11/ASP001** [**https://www.nationalbeefassociation.com/**](https://www.nationalbeefassociation.com/) **SUMMARY **  This Unit allows candidates to develop some of the basic knowledge and skills in relation to farm livestock production in the UK. The Unit will cover the basic production practices and associated husbandry skills for one type of livestock or a group of livestock. Candidates will also learn about the use of equipment and machinery in livestock production. This Unit is designed for candidates who want to develop or further develop their knowledge of livestock production systems and practices and is suitable for candidates with no previous knowledge of agriculture     **OUTCOMES **  1. a. b. c. 2. a. b. c. 3. a. b. c. Identify correctly equipment for livestock waste disposal and describe its uses.   d. 4. a. b. c. d. e. **\ ** **Learning Intention** **Demonstrate knowledge of Beef livestock production systems in the UK.** **Performance Criteria** ** I can understand the Beef production system and give examples of the main feedstuffs for Beef cattle and calves.** ** I know the location and availability of main feedstuffs.** ** I know what a ruminant is and how cattle digest their food.** ** I know what the requirements are for housing calves.** ** I know how efficient Beef Cattle are at converting feed to product.** ** I know the trends in size of Scottish Beef production units and can write a list of Beef and non-food products.** **Introduction** **Farming Facts** **Some 80% of Scotland's land mass is under agricultural production, making the industry the single biggest determinant of the landscape we see around us. Scotland's farmers, crofters and growers produce output worth around £2.9 billion a year, and are responsible for much of Scotland's £5 billion food and drink exports.  The export target for 2017 is £7.1 billion**  **\ ** **Outcome 1a** Understanding Ruminant Production Systems What are Ruminants? Ruminants are animals that have a four-chamber stomach, like cows, sheep, and goats. These animals are unique because they can digest fibrous plants that other animals cannot. https://images.collegedunia.com/public/image/0863bcf5932d35faeaf157a67891391e.png Cattle Digestion: Cattle have one stomach with four compartments. They are the **rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum**, with the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle are ruminants, meaning that they have a digestive system that allows use of otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and re-chewing them as \"cud\". The cud is then re-swallowed and further digested by specialised microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose (a major component of grass) and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other vegetation Main Features of Ruminant Production Systems 1\. Grazing and Foraging Ruminants spend a lot of time grazing on grass and other plants in pastures. They have a special ability to break down tough plant materials through rumination, which means they chew their food, swallow it, regurgitate it, and chew it again! 2\. Rumen Function Ruminants have a large compartment in their stomach called the rumen, where bacteria help break down the fibrous plants they eat into nutrients. This process is essential for their digestion and health. 3\. Feed Efficiency Ruminants, unlike humans or pigs, can efficiently convert roughage, like grass, into energy. This means they are great at making food that we cannot eat into meat and milk. 4\. Reutilization of Waste Ruminants play a crucial role in recycling nutrients. For example, they can eat crop residues or food waste, turning it into useful products like milk or meat. 5\. Connection to Sustainable Farming Ruminant production systems are important for sustainable farming practices. By allowing ruminants to graze on pastures, farmers can maintain healthy fields, reduce the need for chemical inputs, and promote biodiversity on the farm. **Most Beef** cows have a diet that is composed of at least some forage (grass, legumes, or silage). In fact, many cattle are raised on pasture from birth in the spring until autumn (7 to 9 months). Then for pasture-fed animals, grass is the forage that composes all or at least the great majority of their diet. Cattle fattened in feedlots are fed small amounts of hay or straw supplemented concentrate consisting of grain (oats and barley), soy and other ingredients in order to increase the energy density of the diet. Young stock are at grass for most of the year except during the hardest winter months. In the winter months' calf feed consists of roughage and calf pencils. These are like a breakfast cereal. Systems can be self-sufficient in feed, both forage and concentrates or dependent on bought in concentrates. In the first system home produced cereals are used as the sole concentrate, alternatively bought in compound feed can be used. Animals can be housed indoors all year round or graze outdoors during the grass growing season. [Farmers Weekly Expand your knowledge](https://www.fwi.co.uk/livestock/health-welfare#:~:text=Animal%20health%20is%20critical%20to%20all%20producers%20of%20dairy%20and%20beef%20cattle%2C%20sheep%20and%20pigs.%20Get%20advice%20on%20dealing%20with%20livestock%20diseases%20such%20as%2C%20bovine%20TB%20and%20mastitis%2C%20and%20conditions%20su) [Watch this and answer the questions.](https://youtu.be/jc-2YZfN2SI?si=Kgr95Yp9aAmTyKZh) 1. What does BCS stand for? 2. What is the importance of nutrition in cattle? 3. What are the feeding options? 4. What should you take into consideration when optimising grazing? 5. Why should you separate young heifers from old? 6. Who should you engage with to ensure a good and balanced diet for your herd? Task: Questions 1. **What is a ruminant and how do cattle digest their food?** **\ ** **Outcome 1b** **Pig and Poultry Production Systems** **Understanding Pig and Poultry Production** In Scotland, farming systems for producing pigs and poultry involve how animals are raised, cared for, and the facilities used to keep them comfortable and healthy. **Pigs** Pigs on farms are usually kept indoors in large sheds with different sections for movement, feeding, and rest. They are provided with nutritious food to support their growth and health, and the sheds are maintained at a warm temperature during cold weather. **Poultry** Poultry, such as chickens, are raised in poultry units designed to provide ample space for movement, easy access to food and water. They are given a balanced diet to aid their growth and egg production. These units are kept clean to ensure the birds\' health. **How Pig and Poultry Production Systems Work** Pig and poultry production systems encompass several essential features: 1. **Housing:** - Pigs are accommodated in indoor sheds with designated areas for feeding, resting, and movement. - Poultry are housed in specific structures like poultry units that offer space and comfort for the birds. 2. **Feeding:** - Specialized food is provided to both pigs and poultry to meet their nutritional requirements. - This diet supports their growth, health, and product yields, such as meat and eggs. 3. **Healthcare:** - Farmers ensure animals receive proper vaccinations and medications. - Animals are kept in hygienic conditions to prevent diseases and maintain their well-being. 4. **Breeding:** - Quality animals are selected for breeding to ensure the next generation\'s health and productivity. - This selective breeding helps maintain desirable traits for improved meat production or egg-laying. **Visual Aid Suggestions:** - Make diagrams illustrating pig and poultry housing arrangements. - Explore and copy photos or illustrations of pigs and poultry in various farming systems. **Housing** **What are the basic requirements for grower and finisher accommodation?** **For pigs, housing must provide a well-maintained, safe environment, protect stock from the weather and minimise the risk of access by wildlife.** **It is also important to design housing to allow good observation of pigs at all times, and easy handling and movement.** **The latter are going to become more important and might be reflected within the new Red Tractor rules.** **From a housing perspective, think about how easy it is to isolate pigs. There must be a dedicated hospital pen at all times.** **Consider your drainage and where your gates are -- there should be clear gateways between lorry drivers and pigs to promote biosecurity.** **Handling and movement may have been done a certain way for years, but we do need to be sharper in what is acceptable now and how we can facilitate this.** **Slatted vs straw -- what are the pros and cons?** **Slatted accommodation is generally less labour intensive as you do not need to muck out as often. Ventilation is fully controllable, as is temperature.** **Pigs are usually kept in smaller groups and, as a result, there is less competition at feeding.** **The cons are that you have to manage the slurry and have somewhere to put it. Also, the slats will need maintaining, as will the ventilation/temperature systems -- anything that is mechanical can go wrong, so this has the potential to add more to your workload at times.** **The public perception is that straw yards are nicer, and visually, they tend to look better than slats. Straw yards are also usually cheaper to build than slatted accommodation.** **The downside is that they require a lot of straw, and the right kind.** **Growers and finishers can probably cope with something like oilseed rape straw, which is a little cheaper, but it's not advisable to use this for younger pigs as it can cause irritation and skin breakage, which can lead to infection.** **Poor-quality straw can also cause mycotoxin issues.** **When comparing the two systems on your farm, think about the labour requirements.** **If you are likely to save time with a slatted shed and use that extra time to ensure better welfare, then that is only a good thing.** **How much space do growers and finishers require?** **This varies depending on the system and the weight of the pig.** **The table below "space requirements for pigs", gives guidance on unobstructed space requirements. Although this will be 25-30% greater in straw bedded systems.** **Space requirements for pigs** --------------------------------- ----------------------------- **Liveweight** **Floor area (sq m a pig)** **Less than 10kg** **0.15** **10-20kg** **0.2** **20-30kg** **0.3** **30-50kg** **0.4** **50-85kg** **0.55** **85-110kg** **0.65** **More than 110kg** **1** **For those looking to meet Freedom Food standards, this space requirement is slightly different, and they depend on whether you muck out regularly or deep-bed pigs.** **Freedom Foods space requirements** -------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ------------------------------ **Liveweight of pig** **Mucked out (sq m a pig)** **Deep bedded (sq m a pig)** **7-35kg** **0.45** **0.5** **36-50kg** **1.17** **1.3** **51-75kg** **1.35** **1.5** **76-95kg** **1.5** **1.67** **96-110kg** **1.54** **1.72** **How can ventilation be monitored effectively and what are the key principles and requirements?** **The basic principles of ventilation are to bring in fresh, oxygenated air while removing any warm, stale air to eliminate the risk of harmful gases and bacteria in the shed.** **Pigs hate draughts and although air movement is required to reduce respiratory disease risk, there is a fine balance between this and maintaining temperature.** **Whether you opt for fan-assisted or natural ventilation, there are lots of different types, but whichever you choose, maintenance is key. In slatted systems, inlets and outlets can get dusty or broken off during cleaning.** **Also, check that the sensors are clean -- if they are covered in muck, the temperature could be lower than what is being read, so keep clean and get everything serviced regularly.** **Checks should be a daily occurrence and pig behaviour can tell us a lot about how satisfactory -- or not -- ventilation is by observing their lying patterns.** **If you see a group of finishers huddling, there is definitely an issue and the shed is probably too cold. In contrast, if they are spaced out and lying completely on their sides, there might be a draught issue.** **If you are concerned, use smoke bombs/machines to check airflow and detect where any air may be dropping.** **What about lighting and sound?** **If housing is artificially lit, there is a minimum legal requirement of 40 lux for eight hours a day.** **This is something that is really being tightened up on. Do not assume that just because you have put up a brand new shed that is it meeting the requirements -- it is essential to check.** **It used to be said that you should be able to read the fine print of a newspaper in all areas, but with the new requirements, lux meters need to be used.** **If the shed is not artificially lit these rules do not apply. Noise levels above 85 decibels must be avoided.** **What about enrichment?** **Adequate enrichment is something that is being enforced a lot more now thanks to the new code of practice for the welfare of pigs.** **The guidelines state that all pigs must have permanent access to enrichment materials which provide the ability to investigate, manipulate, and carry out foraging activities.** **Enrichment materials must be safe, hygienic and should ideally have the following characteristics:** 1. **Edible -- so that pigs can eat or smell them (possibly with some nutritional benefits).** 2. **Chewable -- so that pigs can bite them** 3. **Investigable -- so that pigs can investigate them** 4. **Manipulable -- so that pigs can change their location, appearance or structure.** **Feeding** ***Overview of pig nutrition*** **Pigs require six main categories of nutrition:** 1. **Water** 2. **Carbohydrates** 3. **Fat** 4. **Protein (amino acids)** 5. **Minerals** 6. **Vitamins** **While it is not a nutrient, pigs require energy, which they obtain from carbohydrates and fat. Pigs also require a precise combination of amino acids, which they acquire from protein. Pigs need these nutrients for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation and other functions.** **Pigs' requirements for these nutritional components are influenced by many factors, including:** - **body weight** - **reproductive state** - **health** - **genetics** - **the environment ** **For example, pigs' requirement for dietary lysine (an essential amino acid, the first limiting) decreases as they age as a result of increasing feed intake; weaner pigs require more lysine, while finisher pigs require considerably less. Similarly, a gestating sow has different nutritional requirements to a lactating sow feeding piglets. Figure 1 gives an overview of the main aims of nutrition at each stage of production.** ***Pig physiology*** **Pig physiology also changes with age. Their digestive systems do not reach full maturity until a few weeks after weaning. In addition, the population of microorganisms within the gut develops with age, meaning that pigs' ability to digest certain raw materials will vary.** **Suckling and newly weaned piglets require highly digestible raw materials, such as milk products and animal proteins, because their guts are less able to cope with vegetable proteins and complex starch. Additives, such as prebiotics, probiotics, acids and enzymes, can also vary in their beneficial effects depending on the stage of production, so the targeted use of additives for pigs of different ages is the most advantageous and cost-effective strategy.** ***Tailoring the diet to the different stages of production*** **This ensures that the correct nutrients, raw materials and combination of additives can be fed to the pig. This not only ensures optimal health and performance, but also reduces waste and environmental damage by preventing the excretion of excess nutrients. It is also the most cost-effective strategy because the typically more expensive diets, such as those fed to weaner pigs, are only fed when required.** https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Uploads/Aims%20of%20nutrition.png **Figure 1. Aims of nutrition for pigs at the different stages of production.** **Healthcare** **\ ** **Outcome 1c** **Understanding Livestock Products in Scotland** **Exploring the Uses of Livestock Products** In Rural Studies, we learn about the different things we get from animals that are raised on farms. These things are known as livestock products. Have you ever thought about all the ways we use these products in our daily lives? **What are Livestock Products?** Livestock products are the things we get from animals like cows, sheep, pigs, and chickens. These products can be divided into different categories based on how we use them. **Examples of Livestock Products** - **Milk:** Cows produce milk that we drink, use to make cheese, yoghurt, and butter. It\'s like the cow\'s way of providing us with nutritious and delicious drinks and snacks. - **Meat:** Animals like sheep and pigs give us meat that we cook and eat. Think about your favourite dishes with beef, lamb, or pork. These animals help us have tasty meals. - **Wool:** Sheep give us wool, a soft and warm material that we use to make clothes like jumpers, scarves, and hats. It\'s like wearing a cosy blanket made by sheep! - **Eggs:** Chickens lay eggs that we eat in so many ways - boiled, fried, scrambled, or in cakes and cookies. Each egg is like a little gift from the chickens. **Uses of Livestock Products** Livestock products are essential in our lives. They provide us with food, clothing, and other useful items. By understanding how we use these products, we appreciate the animals that give them to us. [1.4 million animals](https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/livestock-populations-in-the-united-kingdom/livestock-populations-in-the-united-kingdom-at-1-june-2023#:~:text=The%20dairy%20herd%20saw%20little,trend%20seen%20in%20recent%20years.) The dairy herd saw little change and remains at 1.8 million animals, accounting for just over half of the breeding herd. The beef herd decreased by 3.8% to 1.4 million animals continuing the downward trend seen in recent years. **Introduction** Animal products like milk, meat and eggs have long been part of the human diet. They provide us with caloric energy and many essential nutrients. For example: A 250ml serving of milk provides 150% of the reference nutrient intake (RNI) for vitamin B12. A 200g serving of lean beef provides 36% and 62% of the RNI for iron for female and male adults respectively. Many farmers all over the world specialise in producing livestock which are of central economic importance to their farming businesses. Some farmers keep livestock and grow crops as a mixed farming enterprise where the livestock are an integral part of the farm's system -- providing manure to support arable crop growth for example. Other farms focus solely on breeding or rearing animals. They may grow some crops for animal feed, but many buy in the feed they need. The location of a farm and the characteristics of the land influence the livestock farming system used. For example, in mountainous areas it may be impossible to grow arable and horticultural crops, but grazing animals such as sheep thrive in these uplands and form an intrinsic part of the landscape. **Are we expecting a change in demand for meat and dairy products?** Projections suggest the world population will reach 9 billion by 2050 Since the second world war, increasing consumption of animal products has required increased production of livestock, and significant growth in demand is predicted to continue in certain areas of the world where population is growing fastest. The maps in Figures 4 to 6 show consumption levels in 2013 for meat, milk and eggs respectively. Interactive versions of the maps may be accessed by clicking on 'Source' in the figure caption, or the 'See Also' link at the bottom of this article. These enable you to check consumption levels by country and, by clicking on the 'Chart' tab under the maps, you can see how levels have changed over the period 1961-2013. The expected growth in demand, particularly in America, sub-Saharan Africa and south-east Asia, alongside declines in other parts of the world, reflects changes in dietary preferences which will in turn affect production strategies.  Map of the world showing consumption levels of milk. Highest consumption levels are found in USA, Europe and Australia. Lowest levels are found in equatorial Africa, China and the Far East.  **Selective breeding to meet demand** Livestock breeding is the process of selectively mating animals that have desirable characteristics to maintain or enhance these traits in future generations. With the help of scientists, farmers can estimate the genetic value of individuals in terms of growth rate and yield. This process has contributed substantially to the industry's ability to meet increasing demand. Seventy years ago, it was still common for farmers to rear breeds that were native to their region or country. For example, Hereford cattle and Dorset sheep, iconic British breeds, were commonly farmed in the UK in the past. This has changed, and UK farmers now use European breeds such as Charolais beef cattle, originally from France, and Texel sheep, originally from the Netherlands, which are both larger and produce more meat than the native breeds. Well-known in the UK, the black and white dairy cow, the Holstein-Friesian, originates from the Netherlands and Germany and has been selectively bred to maximise the amount of milk produced per cow. Animal breeding is now highly technical, involving not only artificial insemination, but also tools such as 'genomic selection' and 'estimated breeding values' (EBVs) which help select for traits such as growth rate, fertility or health. **Animal husbandry for sustainability** The livestock industry has had to meet the increasing demand without using more land and at the same time minimising negative impacts on the animals. Farmers must balance their own interests alongside those of the local and wider community and other stakeholders. They need to consider: - the economics of their farm to ensure their business remains viable as costs of production rise and returns on products decline - the environmental impact of their farm - consumer expectations for high animal health and welfare standards. These considerations mirror the three pillars of sustainability economic, environmental and social. To achieve this, farmers must innovate. Firstly, though it's important to understand more about how animals are farmed and you'll cover that in the next few Steps. **The amount and type of animal products consumed across the world is changing** Watch the documentary. [Factory farming, animal welfare and the future of modern agriculture](https://youtu.be/6VOqNVt_cmM?si=RO8Qu51bgYixilKQ) [Further explanation on meat and dairy production](https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production#per-capita-meat-consumption) Go to this article to find out more [Sustainability and the three pillars of sustainable agriculture (futurelearn.com)](https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/explore-how-farmers-produce-food-sustainably/0/steps/60767) **Activities to Explore Livestock Products** - **Create a chart:** Draw a chart showing different livestock products and their uses. **\ ** **Outcome 2a** **Understanding Appropriate Feeding Practices for Beef Cattle** **Introduction** In Rural Studies, we learn about taking care of animals like beef cattle. One important part of looking after these animals is making sure they eat the right food to stay healthy and grow well. Let\'s explore the concept of appropriate feeding practices for beef cattle in a simple way! **What are Feeding Practices for Beef Cattle?** Imagine you\'re like a chef preparing a meal for your cattle friends, the beef cattle. Just like humans need a balanced diet to stay healthy, beef cattle also need different types of food to grow properly. **Types of Food for Beef Cattle** **1. Roughage** Roughage is like the salad or vegetables of the cattle\'s meal. It includes grass, hay, and silage. This helps keep their stomach healthy and aids digestion. **2. Concentrates** Concentrates are the main energy source, just like how we need carbohydrates like rice or bread. Examples of concentrates for cattle are grains like barley or maize. **3. Protein** Protein is like the meat or beans for cattle. They need it to build muscles and stay strong. Sources of protein for cattle include soybean meal or peas. **How to Feed Beef Cattle?** **1. Balanced Diet** Just like how we need a mix of different foods, beef cattle need a balanced diet too. We should give them the right amounts of roughage, concentrates, and protein. **2. Clean Water** Cattle need lots of clean water to drink to stay healthy and hydrated. **3. Feed Schedule** Beef cattle also need a regular feeding schedule. This helps them know when to expect. **Visual Aids and Activities** To make learning about feeding practices for beef cattle more fun and engaging, we could: Create a poster or a chart showing the different types of food cattle need. Outcome 2b **Breeding Practices for Livestock** **Understanding Breeding Practices** Breeding practices involve choosing the right parents to produce offspring with specific qualities, thus improving the quality of livestock in farming. Farmers carefully select which animals should reproduce to create healthier animals that can produce better products like milk, wool, or meat. **Importance of Breeding Practices** Breeding animals correctly is crucial for farmers to ensure that the new animals are healthy, possess desired traits, and can yield high-quality products. By selectively breeding animals, farmers aim to enhance the overall quality of their livestock. **Examples of Breeding Practices** 1. **Selective Breeding**: - Selective breeding involves choosing superior animals to reproduce. For instance, farmers might pair cows that produce large amounts of milk with bulls known for strong and healthy calves. 2. **Crossbreeding**: - Crossbreeding combines two different breeds of animals to merge their best qualities. For example, breeding a fast-growing chicken breed with a breed that lays many eggs results in offspring that grow quickly and produce abundant eggs. The Bull Bulls should be checked ten weeks before the breeding season to ensure they are in good order. [Target BCS](https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/condition-score-bcs-in-beef-herds/) for the bull before service is BCS 3. [Watch video on how to assess BCS](https://youtu.be/IrET9JmUIuI?si=E9SJd_WUQ5ADx6po) Bull MOT Bulls should undergo a full physical examination and have their semen tested approximately two months before the breeding season starts. This will provide an assessment of breeding soundness and allow time for any treatments to be administered or to source another bull if a problem is identified. Eight weeks before joining the cows, bulls need to: Be fit, but not fat -- BSC 3 Be acclimatised to the work environment Have had their semen tested -- [I did not know how they did that](https://youtu.be/sTBe_OcvgUE?si=WvSq9P9R1p1_t4pn) Have had a full physical examination Be active and mobile Be fully vaccinated Young breeding bulls Regardless of health status, young bulls should be quarantined after arrival on the farm for at least four weeks. To prevent boredom, pen two finishing cattle alongside the bull. These can be finished after quarantine. Activity: [AI Breeding in beef herds](https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/beef-herd-fertility/synchronised-breeding-in-beef-herds/) **(Make an Account with the NAIDS read the article and on completion you will get an Email, save it into your file for additional credit)** Beef cattle Production 3 beef systems and their earning potential compared Full Article - [[3 beef systems and their earning potential compared - Farmers Weekly (fwi.co.uk)]](https://www.fwi.co.uk/livestock/beef/3-beef-systems-and-their-earning-potential-compared) Suckler beef A suckler herd is a group of cows that are kept to feed their own young, which are called suckling calves. The calves are left to suckle from their mothers for up to 9 months. The Scottish suckler beef herd is an important part of the rural economy and environmental management in Scotland. Nutrition, health and good management drive fertility. Feeding makes a particularly important contribution to fertility, calving ease and calf performance. Feed is a major cost of keeping a suckler cow. Careful management of body condition is vital to allow cows to utilise cheaper, grazed grass and other home-grown feeds, when available, without compromising performance during the rest of the season. **Cow nutrition -** Feeding suckler cows is all about making sure they are receiving the correct nutrients to conceive, grow and give birth to a healthy, vigorous calf and then produce enough milk for the calf to thrive. In essence this means managing body condition to: ensure cows are not too fat at calving thus minimising calving difficulties start cycling again soon after calving conceive again quickly to produce a calf every year lay down body fat when lots of cheap feed is available (usually grazing) mobilise body fat in the winter to reduce expensive winter feed costs. Full Article - [[Succler cows 2006 (meatpromotion.wales)]](https://meatpromotion.wales/images/resources/Making_the_Most_of_Your_Suckler_Cows.pdf) **Breeding cycle** The aim is for every cow to produce a calf every 12 months, to achieve this she must rebreed within 80 days of the birth of her last calf. It is estimated that the cost of a calving interval extending beyond 365 days is £1 per day -- costing £30 per month. **285 days gestation + 80 days to rebreed = 365 days** Pregnancy scanning cows at weaning or before to determine whether they are pregnant enables cows to be managed according to calving date and those found to be barren early can be moved to an autumn calving group or sold. **Suckler cow breed type** In a commercial suckler herd the crossbred cow has many benefits over a pure bred cow. The objective of all crossbreeding systems is to optimise the use of hybrid vigour and breed differences to improve reproduction, longevity and disease resistance. Pregnancy diagnosis (PD) Pregnancy scanning cows and heifers from six weeks after the end of the service period will identify empty females. If carried out at approximately three months of pregnancy, it can predict calving dates for those in-calf. This means rations can be planned accordingly and animals grouped by calving date so that supervision can be targeted. Late-calving females, which fall outside the target calving period, can be identified for sale pre- or post-calving. All empty cows should be sold, as serving them again encourages the inclusion of less fertile females into the herd. [Feeding the suckled calf](https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Beef%20&%20Lamb/Publications/FeedingSucklerCows2023%20WEB.pdf) Make sure all calves have consumed sufficient colostrum as soon as possible after birth for the best start in life. It provides both protective antibodies to fight disease and high-quality nutrition for energy. Suckled calves should have consumed three litres of colostrum within two hours of birth. If not, this should be given to the calf via a nipple bottle or stomach tube, either by stripping the colostrum from the mother or from powdered colostrum. Colostrum from the calf's mother is preferred, to provide immunity to farm-specific diseases. The calf's ability to absorb the immunoglobulins in colostrum reduces significantly from approximately six hours after birth and has gone completely by 24 hours. Colostrum quality depends on the cow's body condition at calving and her pre-calving diet. First calvers tend to have poorer-quality colostrum than older cows. By the time the calf is four months old, half its feed requirement should be met by grass, silage and/or creep feed rather than milk. At this young age, a calf is very efficient at converting feed into liveweight. Feed conversion efficiency declines as the animal gets older. [Creep feeding](https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B1315&title=creep-feeding-beef-calves#:~:text=Creep%20feeding%20is%20the%20practice%20of%20providing%20supplemental%20feed%20(grain%20or%20forage)%20to%20nursing%20calves.%20This%20is%20usually%20done%20with%20the%20use%20of%20a%20creep%20gate%2C%20which%20is%20large%20enough%20for%20calves%2) [Watch this video](https://youtu.be/BRKguyJayYI?si=oCjNTsTHuym2yFeO) The decision to creep feed While creep feeding is important for calves moving onto intensive finishing systems, even cattle kept for later finishing or as replacements will benefit, making it cost-effective for many herds. Weaning This is a decision which should be based on feed supply and cow condition. Once the calf is six and a half months (200 days) old, 75% of its nutrient requirement will be from feeds other than milk. Feeding the calf directly will be more efficient than feeding the cow to produce decreasing amounts of milk, at the risk of her losing body condition as well. If suckling calves are causing excessive loss of body condition from the cow, they should be weaned immediately. Grazing management Grazed grass accounts for over 50% of the total feed intake of autumn-calving cows and more than 65% of spring-calving cows. Therefore, grazing management has a big impact on the efficiency of suckled calf production. When the herd is turned out in spring, there is rapid grass growth. Understocking at this time will allow grasses to flower, which reduces its feed quality. Aim to stock fields more heavily during the spring and then reduce stocking rate in autumn to keep a tight control of sward height and grass quality. Electric fences can be used to shut off areas not required immediately, which can be cut for silage or hay. Finishing cull cows Before weaning, identify empty cows for culling, so they can be fed to gain weight if required, either in late lactation or immediately after weaning. The advantage of extra feeding in late lactation is that the cow has a greater appetite than when dry and her maintenance costs are already covered by the calf. **Outcome 2c** **Maintaining Animal Health and Welfare for Livestock** **Understanding the Importance of Animal Health and Welfare** Looking after animals is crucial to ensure they remain healthy and content. Just as humans require proper care to stay well, livestock on a farm also need adequate attention and support. **Measures to Maintain Animal Health and Welfare** **Providing Nutritious Food:** Animals must receive a balanced and nutritious diet to maintain their strength and health. For instance, cows require hay and grass as essential components for energy and milk production. **Clean Water and Shelter:** Access to clean water for drinking and a secure shelter for sleeping are fundamental for animals\' well-being, ensuring they remain clean and comfortable. **Regular Exercise and Space:** Animals benefit from adequate space to move around and engage in natural behaviours. Providing them with room to exercise helps keep them physically fit and mentally stimulated. **Veterinary Care:** Veterinarians play a vital role in ensuring animal health. They provide medical attention and treatments when needed, contributing to the overall well-being of the livestock. **Regular Health Checks:** Regular health checks are essential on a farm to monitor the animals\' condition and address any issues promptly. This proactive approach helps maintain the animals\' health and happiness. **Housing Cattle** **Activity -(Make an Account with the NAIDS read the article and on completion you will get an Email, save it into your file for additional credit)** **[Housing Calves](https://nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/calf-management/calf-housing/) read the article and complete the test expect an email** **Read the article, watch the [webinar](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAbp-QQtcR4)** **Activity - (Make an Account with the NAIDS read the article and on completion you will get an Email, save it into your file for additional credit)** **Out wintering cattle** **[Out-Wintering of Cattle](https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/out-wintering-of-cattle/) read the article and complete the test expect an email** **Biosecurity** ***Biosecurity is a set of practical measures you can take to prevent and limit the spread of infectious diseases on your farm and from elsewhere. Below, we\'ve compiled a range of advice and resources, from general best practice to farm-specific information to help you protect your farming business.*** ***On-farm biosecurity*** **Good biosecurity is important for growers and farmers alike, regardless of your produce or livestock. Reducing the introduction or spread of disease will protect animal and plant health, improve animal welfare and avoid the potential costs associated with new diseases. Read our overview to find out how you can implement biosecurity measures and protect your profitability.** **Protecting your farm against biosecurity threats** **Good biosecurity is important and can be business-critical whether you are farming livestock or crops. While there are some sector-specific biosecurity issues, such as some notifiable diseases, most of the biosecurity measures to be taken on farm are broadly applicable:** - **Don't buy in problems in stock or seeds** - **Don't let disease spread across your farm boundaries** - **Don't bring disease into your farm on boots, vehicles, equipment or other supplies** **It is essential to protect farm profitability. Introduction of disease could have major effects on the business and health of the herd, flock or crops.** **There are many simple precautions that can be taken and any biosecurity plan must be tailored to the needs of your farm. ** **The benefits of protecting your farm against biosecurity threats** - **New infectious diseases are avoided** - **Spread of disease is reduced** - **Control and eradication of disease becomes a real possibility** - **Reduced need for antibiotic and medicine use** - **Increased productivity** **Our quick guide to keeping biosecurity a low risk on farm** **General advice:** - **Control vermin on farms** - **Ensure all farm staff have received adequate training in areas that will reduce the risk of contamination and spread of disease** - **Identify areas of high risk on your farm and address these first.** **Additional advice for livestock farmers:** - **Move towards a closed herd policy and all-in all-out management of buildings, rooms or pens** - **Define, monitor and maintain your herd/flock health status** - **Isolate incoming stock --- discuss testing and vaccination or treatment during the quarantine period with your vet** - **Clean thoroughly and disinfect effectively between batches of animals** - **Provide clean feed and water** - **Keep housing well-ventilated and draught-free** - **Ensure compliance with licence conditions for the movement of livestock** **Activity: (Make an Account with the NAIDS read the article and on completion you will get an Email, save it into your file for additional credit)** **[Biosecurity](https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/biosecurity-for-dairy-and-beef-cattle/) complete the test and expect an email.** Outcome 3a **Understanding Feeding Equipment and Machinery in Livestock Production** **What is Feeding Equipment and Machinery?** Feeding equipment and machinery are tools that help farmers feed their animals in an efficient and effective way. Just like how you might use a spoon to eat your soup, farmers use feeding equipment and machinery to give animals their food. **Examples of Feeding Equipment and Machinery** 1. **Feed Troughs**: These are long, narrow containers where animal feed is placed. It\'s like a buffet table for the animals to eat from. 2. **Silage Wagons**: These are big trailers used to transport silage (a type of animal feed) to the animals. Imagine it as a food delivery truck for cows! 3. **Mixer Wagons**: These machines mix different types of animal feed together. It\'s like how you mix ingredients when baking a cake to make sure all animals get a balanced diet. **Use of Feeding Equipment and Machinery** 1. **Efficiency**: Feeding machinery saves time and energy for farmers by making the feeding process quicker and more organised. 2. **Nutrition**: Different machinery helps in ensuring that animals get the right kind and amount of food they need to stay healthy and strong. Remember, understanding feeding equipment and machinery is crucial for farmers to take care of their livestock and help them grow healthy! The mixer wagon in use. Unloading the mixer wagon. What makes up the diet of Dairy cattle and calves? *Be detailed* Explain two ways farms can provide feed for their livestock? *Remember to include because on your answer* Outcome 3b **What is Livestock Handling Equipment?** Livestock handling equipment includes tools and structures designed to safely and efficiently work with farm animals, such as cattle, sheep, and pigs. This equipment helps farmers manage and care for their animals effectively. **Importance of Livestock Handling Equipment** Imagine trying to brush a sheep without a pen to keep it still or trying to milk a cow without a milking machine. Livestock handling equipment makes these tasks much easier and safer for both the animals and the farmers. **Examples of Livestock Handling Equipment Uses** **1. Cattle Crush** - **Description:** A cattle crush is a device used to hold cattle in place for tasks like vaccinations and hoof trimming. - **Use:** It keeps the cow steady to ensure the farmer can work safely and efficiently without causing harm to the animal. **2. Sheep Handling Race** - **Description:** A narrow pathway that guides sheep from one place to another. - **Use:** Farmers can move sheep easily from one area to another, such as for shearing or sorting. **Outcome 3c** **Identifying Equipment for Livestock Waste Disposal** Livestock waste disposal equipment includes tools and machinery that help farmers manage and safely get rid of animal waste. Some common examples of this equipment are: **1. Manure Spreader** A manure spreader is like a big wagon that collects animal manure and spreads it evenly across fields. It helps fertilize the soil and improve crop growth. **2. Slurry Tanker** A slurry tanker is used to store and transport animal slurry, a mixture of manure and water. Farmers spread this on fields to nourish the soil. **3. Composter** A composter is a container where organic waste, like animal bedding and manure, decomposes naturally. This process creates nutrient-rich compost that can be used as a natural fertilizer. **Uses of Livestock Waste Disposal Equipment** Now, let\'s understand how this equipment is used on farms: **Manure Spreader** Imagine you have a wheelbarrow full of animal manure. Instead of spreading it by hand, the manure spreader can do it quickly and evenly over a large area, just like sprinkling icing sugar on a cake. **Slurry Tanker** Think of the slurry tanker as a big bucket that carries liquid manure. Farmers drive this tanker to fields and spray the slurry out like watering plants with a hose, providing nutrients to the soil. **Composter** A composter works like a magic box where old animal bedding and manure go in and, over time, turn into nutritious compost. It\'s like a nature-powered recycling machine for farm waste. Outcome 3d **Main Pieces of Equipment in Beef Production** In beef production, there are several important pieces of equipment that are used to help farmers take care of their cows and ensure they are healthy and well looked after. Understanding these pieces of equipment is essential for anyone involved in the farming industry. **Examples of Equipment:** 1. **Cattle Crush**: A secure enclosure used for procedures like vaccinations or examinations. It helps to keep the cows still and safe during these processes. 2. **Feeding Troughs**: Containers where cows are given their food, such as hay or grains. These troughs make it easy for cows to access their food. 3. **Water Troughs**: Containers that hold water for cows to drink from. This ensures that cows have a fresh and clean water supply at all times. 4. **Fencing**: Used to separate areas on the farm and contain the cows. Fencing helps to keep the cows safe and prevent them from wandering off. 5. **Carry out practical livestock husbandry skills.  ** **Performance criteria** b. Identify and visually assess the quality of common feeds.   c. Effectively restrain and handle given livestock.   d. Examine correctly an animal for recognised signs of health and disease.   e. Measure correctly the body temperature of an animal.   f. Demonstrate safe working practices at all times.   **Outcome 4C** SHEEP Sheep Health Parts of Sheep Hoof  This picture shows the various parts of the hoof on the bottom of the foot. A. Identifies the heel regions of the foot. B. Shows the toe region on a claw that has not been trimmed. C. Identifies the outside hoof wall, and D. Indicates fresh sole after being trimmed. ***Task: Draw and label your own sketch of a sheep's hoof.*** More info: [[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=inE8aWA8rR4]](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=inE8aWA8rR4) **Sheep's Hoof Trimming** **A sheep's foot is made up of two halves with the horn-like "nail" growing on the outside edges surrounding a softer pad area.** **Under what conditions do the Sheep hooves grow rapidly?** **Sheep are well known for being prone to suffering with foot problems and lameness and one of the commonest underlying factors in causing these is overgrowth of the nail.** **Damp heavy land such as grassy paddocks and fields are a real problem** for sheep as there is little resistance or friction to be able to naturally wear the hooves down. Some sheep may be kept indoors, especially during lambing time. This can make them more susceptible to foot problems as the hoof tends to grow more rapidly. Why are sheep prone to having problems with their feet? If left unattended, this nail will grow inward and under the foot, making the base uneven and it can grow into the softer padded part of the foot. Dirt and stones become trapped under the overgrown nail. The ensuing pain and discomfort can cause lameness and the presence of foreign material may result in inflammation and infection, leading to a bacterial infection known as foot rot (commonly known for its typical offensive odour). Signs to be concerned about are swelling or heat in the foot, possible foot rot or scald (treated with copper sulphate - Kopertox) also known as inter-digital dermatitis and caused by long grass or impacted faeces. What are the major signs you are looking for if you suspect a sheep has a problem with their hoof? What are common problems that sheep have with their hoofs? 12 Common Hoof Problems in Sheep \ 1. Bluetongue *Bluetongue results in lesions on your sheep's hooves.* It can cause lameness but is not contagious. It is viral and spread instead by biting insects. A red or brand band around the top of the hoof (coronet) is a good indicator of bluetongue. 2\. Foot abscess Foot abscesses can be caused by a number of issues, but are usually related to bacterial infection in damaged foot tissue. While this disease can affect any of the hooves, it is more common in the front. You will notice signs like swelling of the soft tissues around and above the hoof, as well as draining abscesses if the disease is advanced. It doesn't usually affect all of the feet at a time, but it can. It needs to be treated with antibacterial medication as soon as possible, particularly if it is so advanced that it has resulted in draining pockets. 3\. Foot rot **Foot rot is by far the most common disease** among sheep flocks, and I was terrified that this was what Thor had when we first noticed he was limping. This disease doesn't usually kill an animal outright, but it can cause permanent lameness that requires you to cull your herd. Treating foot rot can be time-consuming and expensive, so it's best to work to prevent it before it becomes a problem. This disease is caused by synergistic activity between two species of anaerobic bacteria, both of which are found in soil and manure. These bacteria cannot be eliminated -- they are present wherever you are raising or grazing sheep, cattle, or goats. That being said, *the bacteria have to get to your farm somehow,* and the way they do this is on the hooves of other animals. This is a highly contagious disease, so if you only have one sheep with affected feet, there's a good chance that it is not foot rot. Foot rot spreads more easily **when the weather is warm, the conditions are unsanitary, and there is lots of mud.** While these conditions all produce a greater likelihood for spreading the bacteria, you have to remember that the bacteria is spread from infected sheep to the ground or bedding -- and it can only live for two to three weeks. You can introduce foot rot to your farm by coming into contact with other infected sheep. This can be done by purchasing an infected animal or even driving a truck with contaminated tires into your sheep's pen. It is easiest to spread when temperatures range between 40 and 70 degrees, and the ground is damp. Carriers of the bacteria will continue to re-infect your flock until it is eliminated or the animal is removed. **Foot rot can be prevented by keeping your sheep's [[hooves properly trimmed]](http://www.raisingsheep.net/how-to-trim-sheep-hooves.html)**. This will help remove any mud and manure that is packed into your sheep's hooves, which is a primary vector for carrying these bacteria. You can also soak the foot in a bath of a zinc sulphate solution. Interestingly, though, *you need to be careful not to over trim your sheep's hooves*. This can actually cause a more aggressive spread of the disease. Vaccination can also help prevent and treat foot rot, but it doesn't cover all the strains, so it's not fool proof. In most cases, sheep will respond to treatment right away. However, those that don't must be culled before they spread foot rot to the other sheep. It should also be noted that some sheep are more susceptible to foot rot based on their breed and genetics. For whatever reason, sheep with black hooves are less prone to foot rot than are those with lighter hooves. 4\. False foot rot **Here's something to pay attention to.** Foot rot will very rarely affect only one sheep in an entire flock. Don't assume that a single footsore sheep has foot rot. If only one or two sheep seem to be infected, there's a chance that false foot rot -- and not actual foot rot -- is to blame. This term is loosely applied to any condition in which the lining membrane of the canal at the top of the hoof becomes infected or diseased. There will be a formation of pus and the hoof-head will become severely painful and warm to the touch. To treat this disease, you will need to clean the foot and cut away any rotten or loose under-run horn. *In rare cases, you may need to bring your sheep to a veterinarian to have the toe amputated.* 5\. Foot and mouth disease This highly contagious disease can spread among cattle, pigs, sheep, deer, and goats, and **is a serious problem in many parts of the world.** In a sheep, it will present less obvious signs than in a cow or pig, in which you will notice large blisters in or around the mouth, feet, or teats. This disease has reared its head in the United Kingdom in the recent past, so it wouldn't be unheard of for it to resurface elsewhere, too. 6. Foot Scald  Also known as interdigital dermatitis, foot scald is an infection that is not contagious. It causes lameness and usually occurs on the front feet. Upon closer inspection, **you might notice lesions between your sheep's hooves.**  The tissue will become either white or red and swollen. It is easy to treat, requiring you only to get your sheep out of muddy pastures and keep them in a drier environment. You can also treat foot scald by applying a topical solution of copper sulphate. *This condition often resolves on its own as drier conditions arise.* \ 7. Laminitis Laminitis is caused by poor blood flow to the hoof. This is a relatively rare disease because animals usually die before their feet become infected. It is caused by excessive grain intake, also known as acidosis, which ultimately causes digestive problems and later moves to other parts of the body. It can result in permanent lameness. 8. Soremouth Also referred to as contagious ecthyma, this disease causes lameness as well as blisters on the skin near the top of the hoof wall. You might also notice blisters on other parts of your sheep's body, such as his mouth. In fact, you are more likely to see blisters around the mouth than you are on a sheep's legs or feet. You can prevent this disease with vaccination and it is easily treated with an antibiotic ointment. 9\. Gland infection Sheep have scent glands between their toes, and **these can become infected**. This tends to be more common with younger sheep, but can infect individuals of all ages. It usually results in a pus-filled sac between the top and front of the foot where the sheep's toes meet. Treating with an antibiotic and cleaning the gland is the best way to treat this problem. 10\. Cuts and wounds Now, an important consideration to keep in mind is that a limping sheep is not necessarily a sick one. There is also a chance that he or she has somehow injured himself. It is very easy for a sheep to injure himself between the grooves of his toes, as well as between the hoof wall and the pad of the hoof. You might not even be able to see any sign of injury and yet this can still be the source of the pain. *With that in mind, make sure you rule out all other potential illnesses before deciding it is a simple wound.* Then, you can treat it with warm water and antibiotic ointments. It's also a good idea to [spray a protective barrier[ ]](https://jrpiercefamilyfarm.com/2019/03/29/16-things-you-need-in-your-homesteading-first-aid-kit/)on the foot to allow it to be protected while it heals. 11\. Shelly hoof Shelly hoof affects the wall of the hoof, which is a naturally weak area, in general.  You might notice that the line of the hoof progressively begins to degenerate. You'll notice that pockets become packed full of dirt and debris, and the hoof wall will separate. Mild cases are extremely common, but more severe cases can lead to lameness or abscesses. The easiest way to prevent shelly hoof is to **routinely inspect the hooves of your sheep.** This will allow you to notice when hooves have become overgrown and need to be pared. If an abscess does arise, don't worry -- it's usually not infectious and is easily treated by trimming and foot baths. 12\. Granuloma A granuloma will look not unlike a strawberry and *will cause serious damage to the foot.* It is caused by overzealous foot trimming, which then leads to bleeding, but other injuries can also cause this to appear. It results in a misshapen and overgrown hoof and your sheep will favour the foot. This disease can also be caused by prolonged exposure to wet ground and is more common in sheep who have a history of foot rot. If your sheep has a granuloma, contact your veterinarian. The vet will need to anesthetize the foot before trimming and exposing the granuloma.* It will need to be removed and the base cauterized\ * **What problems can occur if the hoof is left unattended?** 4.4: Identify the problem shown in each photo? **Task**: Use the summaries over the previous pages to help identify the problem with each sheep. Include the reasons why you believe the animal to have this diagnosis.   ***\ *** Equipment for trimming SHEEP hooves - A good pair of trimmers/foot shears is important and can be purchased from a local farming shop. - Hoof pick/brush. - Anti-septic foot spray to reduce the risk of any infection. - Antibiotic spray may be needed if foot rot or other bacterial problem is evident. - Old clothes/overalls and gloves -- it's a messy business! - Foot bath -- if you do have an infected sheep, one that needs more intensive treatment or are worried about spread of any infection, then you may consider this piece of equipment. A commonly used foot bath solution is zinc sulphate. - Blood clotting powder -- just in case you miss! **Task** : Create a spider diagram that demonstrates all the items a farmer requires to maintain sheep hooves. Steps to trim sheep hooves Use basic sheep handling skills to place a sheep on its back. There are easier assisted ways to do it as you can purchase roll over crates or sheep cradles. Clean away any dirt, stones, grass or faeces so that you can properly visualise the foot. Once the hoof is relatively clean, you can inspect each foot, and check for any signs of infection, examine the skin between the claws and make a judgment about how much nail needs to be removed. The foot is delicate -- you only need to remove any nail growth that is beyond the level at the bottom of the hoof, you're basically just trying to make the foot even. Don't panic if you do nick the foot by accident. Apply some blood clotting powder and keep an eye to make sure the wound is healing OK -- some antibiotic spray may be needed if there's any sign of infection taking hold. **Task**: Complete these questions **Treating other ailments** Drugs preventing sheep condition loss Antihelminthics are drugs that expel parasitic worms from the body, by either stunning or killing them. Closamectin treats sheep for: Sheep scab is a skin disease of sheep caused by a mite Liver fluke - these flatworms can occur in gallbladder and liver. Parasitic worms. **Task**: Using internet research, identity the **five** most common ailments of sheep, and identify the common drugs used to treat each ailment. PIGS **Pig Husbandry** 5.1: What is Pig [Husbandry] all about? **Task**: Answer the following questions: **Basic Characteristics of Pigs** **Some Common Terminology** Here are some common terms that you may not be familiar with, but are important in the pig world: [**[Sow]**](#Sow): this is normally kept for an adult female animal in the pig world. You should not talk about just 'pigs' anymore - you are now a [**[stockperson]**](#Stockperson) (someone who looks after the animals) [**[Boar]**](#Boar): adult entire (with testicles) male [**[Gilt]**](#Gilt): a young female pig up to its first litter **[[Litter]](#Litter):** the name given to the pigs born at one time to a sow [**[Farrow]**](#Farrow): to give birth to a litter of pigs [**[Weaning]**](#Weaning): the time when piglets are taken from their mother **Task**: Create a Glossary of these terms. **How to identify Male and Female Pigs** In British pig production castration is no longer practised - all males are left entire. It is quite easy in the pig to tell the males from the females by looking underneath their bellies and also under their tails (although this has to be done with care). Adult boars are heavily muscled, with a visible [**[sheath]**](#Sheath) below their belly and testicles between their hind legs. You may be able to see the row of teats on each side of the female's belly; these will be well developed in the sow and seen from behind, the female will have two orifices while the boar only has one.  **Common Signs of Pig Ill Health** 5.2: Pig Ill Health You may wish to review several websites before attempting this task: - [[https://www.fwi.co.uk/livestock/health-welfare/common-signs-of-illness-in-pigs-and-tips-for-treatment]](https://www.fwi.co.uk/livestock/health-welfare/common-signs-of-illness-in-pigs-and-tips-for-treatment) - [[http://apha.defra.gov.uk/documents/surveillance/diseases/disease-smallholder-pet-pig.pdf]](http://apha.defra.gov.uk/documents/surveillance/diseases/disease-smallholder-pet-pig.pdf) **Signs of Pig Ill Heath** We often know instinctively when an animal is sick. Try and list as many signs as you can think of that would show that a pig is unhealthy. **Signs of Pig Health** Similarly, we often know instinctively that an animal is healthy. List as many behavioural signs as you can think of that would show that a pig is healthy. Pig Breeds There are many breeds and types of pigs throughout the world but it is more important that we become familiar with the common breeds in the UK for both indoor and outdoor production systems. You may want to find out more about pig breeds of the world. Here is a good web link that will provide links to various pig breed societies: [[www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine]](http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine) There are 13 established pedigree **pig breeds** within the UK herd. Details of individual breeds are on the British Pig Association's website: [[http://www.britishpigs.org.uk/]](http://www.britishpigs.org.uk/) The most popular are **British Landrace** and **Large White.** **Large White** Ranked as the top breed in the country, and easily the leading breed in the world. Distinguished by their erect ears, slightly dished faces, white colour. Pink skins and long deep sides. Large Whites are known for large litters, heavy milk production and for having good mothering instincts. ***Large White Boar*** **British Landrace** Ranked second in numbers in the UK, the British Landrace has the characteristic drooped ear that covers much of the face, is very long and muscular and is known for producing high quality pig meat. Image ***Landrace*** **Tamworth** A red, strictly bacon-type breed, with long sharp faces and erect ears. The colour varies from golden to dark red. Used mostly in outdoor production.  ***Tamworth*** **Duroc** Originally a main breed in the USA, now used in this country in the production of pigs for bacon and pork. The sows make excellent mothers. Duroc Duroc **Pietrain** Originally from Belgium, this breed has a reputation for improving the quality of the carcass when the boar is used on sows of other breeds. Now used in both indoor and outdoor production, either as a pure breed or as a cross (hybrid) such as the JSR 'Titan' boar. They are shorter legged than most breeds, stockier in build and quite broad along the back. The hams are extremely bulging and muscular and they carry an extremely high proportion of lean to fat.  *Pietrain* **Pig Breeds changing Characteristics** Improved growth and quality of meat is achieved when a Landrace/Large White crossed female is bred with either a pure bred Landrace or Large White, resulting in an increased number of stronger faster-growing piglets. Most commercial units use a crossed type of pig. A Large White sire produces fast growing lean carcasses for fresh pork production while the demand for bacon carcasses has led to the development of special Landrace types of boar. Duroc cross pigs are used extensively in outdoor pig breeding units producing offspring that are better able to handle UK weather conditions, winter and summer. Research & Present a Breed **Task: Read through the details about the different pig breeds on the preceding pages, then select the breed that most interests you** **Create a short Powerpoint presentation on the pig breed of your choice.** **Use the following websites to help start your research:** [**[https://www.britishpigs.org.uk/buyers-guides]**](https://www.britishpigs.org.uk/buyers-guides) **EXTENSION:** **Adapt your presentation to be a SALES PITCH at the RHS trying to encourage farmers to adopt your breed. Use the websites to find some extra photos and information for your presentation.** [[www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine]](http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine) [[http://www.britishpigs.org.uk/]](http://www.britishpigs.org.uk/) Pig Housing **Life Stages of Pigs** It is important to be able to identify the particular life stages of an animal because this will affect how we feed and look after them **Young Animals** A young pig (piglet) is weaned from its mother at around 28 days. Normally they are introduced to solid food at 15 -- 20 days. After weaning they are referred to as [[weaners]](#Weaning). **Adolescent Animals** Adolescent animals are those that are growing up, and with pigs should be fattened by the time they are 6 months old or have reached a weight of about 100kg live weight (for bacon - pork pigs are lighter) **Adult animals** Adult animals are those that are fully grown and have reached puberty. Most adult pigs are also producing (lactating or pregnant) which means that they will require additional feed. **Pregnant Sows** Sows are pregnant for 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days (15 weeks) and will normally have at least two sets of piglets per year (known as litters). The Life Stages of a Pig ***Task -- Design a diagram/pie chart/table that details the different life stages of a growing pig. Include details about each stage (from the information above).*** **Pig Housing** During the 1970s and 1980s sows were kept in stalls and tied by the neck or by a band which went round their body, like the way dairy cows were kept in byres. *In response to demands from consumers insisting on higher standards of animal welfare, a ban on stalls and tethers was introduced in the UK in 1999 - before any other EU country. Denmark followed within a year.* *As a result of the new legislation, breeding stock and technology have been developed for systems that allow for loose housing of groups of sows in straw yards. The introduction of new welfare legislation also led to an increase in the number of outdoor breeding units, which didn't cost so much money to set up.* *In indoor units, the preparation and mucking out of pig housing must be part of a system that is labour saving and cost effective: systems are often mechanised, using bobcats and other machinery. Hopefully you will see these machines in action. However, there are always manual tasks to be done and you may well be involved in the washing out of pig pens, using a power washer, as part of this course.*  Sows that are in pig (pregnant) are kept in pens similar to that shown above while those that are due to farrow (give birth) are taken to the [**[farrowing house]**](#FarrowingHouse) where they are kept in individual pens like that in the picture below. The crate helps to protect the young piglets and extra heat is provided for the piglets at this stage using a heat lamp or under floor heating. The piglets remain with their mother for at least 28 days at which time they are weaned and taken to a controlled environment known as the '[**[flat deck']**](#FlatDeck). The pigs will remain in the 'flat deck' for 28 days before moving to the [**[grower house]**](#GrowerHouse).  And eventually to the [**[finishing house]**](#FinishingHouse). Quite often the grower and finishing house are slatted, with the slurry and dung being collected in under floor tanks, which are emptied out at regular intervals, the slurry being stored in large holding tanks to be spread on the fields at a later date. Slats are convenient but are not very comfortable for the animals.  *The slurry is stored in large tanks before being spread on the fields as fertiliser* *Other forms of bedding used are straw and sawdust or wood shavings. Straw is the stalk of grain and so it is a by-product of harvesting wheat, barley and oats. It sometimes comes in small square [**[bales]**](#Bale) which can be handled by one or two people, but more often, nowadays, it comes in large round bales which need to be moved around by a tractor and spike. Sawdust and shavings are usually used in the farrowing house.* 5.5: Key Housing Terms ***Task: Create a glossary of terms of the words highlighted in blue. You can write your own or work in pairs. You may want to look these terms up online for more details.*** **Safety Tip!**  Straw can sometimes be dusty and contain harmful fungi. If it is very dusty, it is not good for you or the pigs. You should always wear a facemask if you are working with dusty straw. **Temperatures** **Temperature** for pigs are very important and are set out in the welfare code as follows:- Sows 15-20 Indoor Housing Suckling pigs 25-30 Farrowing House Weaned pigs 27-32 Flat Deck Growers 22-27 Growing House Finishing pigs (bacon) 13-18 Finishing House 5.6: As the Pig Grows ***Task**: Create a Power-Point or diagram showing a timeline for a pig from pregnancy to birth to finishing.* *Include information on:* - *Bedding,* - *Ideal temperature* - *Any special arrangements.* ***EXTENSION:*** *In your Power-Point compare the life cycle of a pig with life cycle of a dairy cow.* *How long is gestation?* *How long before they are weaned?* *At what age can they become pregnant?* *When can they produce a product that can be sold?* - [*[http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/02/01244/www.epa.gov/agriculture/ag101/dairyphases.html]*](http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/02/01244/www.epa.gov/agriculture/ag101/dairyphases.html) - *[[http://www.sites.ext.vt.edu/virtualfarm/dairy/dairy\_lifecycle.html\#]](http://www.sites.ext.vt.edu/virtualfarm/dairy/dairy_lifecycle.html)* *Look at figure 11.11:* - *[[http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop412A/2011\_0009\_Szucs\_et\_al-Sectorial\_Economy\_II/ch11s04.html]](http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop412A/2011_0009_Szucs_et_al-Sectorial_Economy_II/ch11s04.html)* **Feeding and Watering Pigs**  Pig feeding is quite a specialised art and most pig units work with specialist feed companies to provide the appropriate rations for the different stages of production. - Sows and boars are fed a fixed ration and are fed either once or twice a day (once a day being normal) - All other pigs are fed on an ad lib (whenever they need to) basis with hoppers being situated in the pen - sometimes these are refilled mechanically. Water is very important to the pig and a good supply has to be available at all times. Unlike cattle, pigs are not normally given water by trough, unless outdoors. Normally the water is given by a nipple drinker or by drinking bowl. A shortage of water will reduce feed intake. The lactating sow needs a flow of 2 litres per minute. At the peak of lactation she may drink more than 40 litres per day. Lack of water can lead to salt poisoning which can eventually lead to the death of the pig. **Minimum daily water requirement**:- Weight of Pig Daily requirement (litres) Newly weaned 1.0 -- 1.5 Up to 20kg 1.5 -- 2.0 20kg to 40kg 2.0 -- 5.0 Finishing pigs up to 100kg 5.0 -- 6.0 Sows in pig 5.0 -- 8.0 Sows rearing piglets (lactating) 15.0 -- 30.0 Boars 5.0 -- 8.0 5.7: Feeding & Watering 71. *How do the needs of a pig change as they grow?* 72. *What is different about how pigs take water?* 73. *Why is it important that a nursing Sow has good access to water?* 5.8: Pig Husbandry - Review & Test Yourself **Task**: Now that you've had a chance to practise the various skills and found out more about pig husbandry, you can have a go at answering these questions. Tick the correct box. 1\. What do we call a female pig? 2\. Which one of the following is not a breed of pig? a\) British Landrace b) Large White c) Highland d) Tamworth 3\. Which of the following is not a sign of good health in pigs? a\) shiny skin b) discharge from nose c) pink gums d) bright eyes 4\. Lactation is: 5\. Wood shavings can be a bedding material for pigs. a\) True b) False 6\. In the UK, pigs may be kept tethered in stalls. a\) True b) False 7\. Sows and boars are fed three times a day. a\) True b) False 8\. Suckling pigs should be kept at a temperature of: a\) 15 -- 20 ^^C b) 25 -- 30 ^^C c) 27 -- 32 ^^C d) 22 -- 27 ^^C 9\. A sow is pregnant for around: a\) 5 weeks b) 10 weeks c) 15 weeks d) 20 weeks 10\. A sow at the peak of lactation may drink as much as: POULTRY **What is commercial poultry?** Poultry production is a varied, yet highly integrated sector that can broadly be split into two parts, **laying** (chicken egg production) and **broilers** (chicken meat production). However, other livestock such as ducks, geese and turkeys also fall under the poultry sector. **Poultry - Chickens** The main form of poultry farming in Scotland is Chickens. The industry has seen a shift from family farms, with a loss of many smaller poultry units, with both egg laying and broiler production now in the hands of much larger operations. Such have been the changes within the sector, that the UK is now only 65% self-sufficient in chicken and despite the mass influx of laying units, some eggs do still have to be imported. The egg and poultry meat sectors are also highly integrated and are committed to farm assurance through the British Egg Industry Council (BEIC)'s Lion Code and Assured Chicken Production. BEIC members have invested heavily in promotion and provision on health issues to consumers. A huge volume of work has been undertaken by the egg industry, through the Red Lion Scheme and others, to promote eggs as healthy, nutritious, value-for-money and versatile.  **Types of Production** Layer Hens In 2019 the UK produced around 11,376,000,000 eggs, 12% of which were produced in Scotland. There was around 6.8million laying chickens in Scotland, in 2018. The majority of eggs produced and sold in Scotland are produced on a contract basis. However, locally sourced eggs from small scale egg producers have become more popular in recent years. Larger scale independent egg producers can sell their eggs via the large egg producers/packers, or through local businesses (e.g. hotels, farmer's markets).  Market trends have also shifted towards free range egg production and anyone considering investing in an egg production business should ensure that there will be a market for their egg. The table below shows egg production by system as a % of total egg production by year. 1965 1980 2010 2019 ------------ ------ ------ ------ ------- Cage\* 53% 95% 50% 42.3% Barn 37% 4% 5% 1% Free Range 10% 1% 42% 52.6% Organic \- \- 3% 3.1% \**Since 2012, as a legal requirement all cage systems must be enriched for laying hens.* Over 90% of eggs in the UK are produced using the British Lion Quality Code of Practice, which ensures that the eggs sold are indeed British and adhere to various UK and EU legislation governing the food safety of eggs, in particular that laying hen flocks are vaccinated against Salmonella and that all eggs are traceable. In 2018, Scotland's egg production was valued at over £88million. Egg Production ***Task:*** ***How has egg production changed over time?*** ***Draw up a graph showing the changes in egg production from 1965 -- 2019.*** ***Why might there have been a major shift to Free-range eggs over cage / barn laid eggs? You'll need to think about this*** ***What is the value of egg production in Scotland?*** Broiler Hens The UK produced 1.64 million tonnes of broiler chicken meat in 2019, a decrease of 2.1% from 2018. In 2018, there was 6.5million broiler chickens in Scotland, with most Scottish broiler production being located in the Lowlands, in part this is because it provides easy and cheap access to the intensive feed needs of the Broilers, as sources of feed are grown in the same areas. Most broiler chickens are reared conventionally in large intensive farming operations using sheds to house thousands of birds, with free range and organic production accounting for about 5% of the market. Conventional rearing typically means in light-controlled houses but providing natural daylight through windows (along with other types of environmental enrichment, such as perches and bales of wood shavings/straw) is becoming increasingly popular. In 2018, the tonnage of meat produced was valued at over £59million. Broiler birds have a life cycle from hatching to slaughter of 40 days, providing optimal weights for the consumer. Chickens breed efficiently ---a single bird can produce hundreds of chicks annually---and are highly efficient weight gainers. A recent report from the USA found that producing a calorie of chicken protein required about 5.6 calories of fossil fuels, compared with reported figures of about 14 calories for pork and 20 to 40 for beef. Breeding for Meat Production **Task:** Answer the questions How many Broiler chickens are there in Scotland? Where are most of the Broiler units located in Scotland? Why is this? What percentage of the Broiler units are free-range? Why might this be so low? What type of housing are most broiler chickens grown? What is the life cycle of a Broiler Chicken? Is Chicken the most efficient protein in converting feed material to calories? Compare it to Beef. **Main Breeds** Commercial hens are of mixed parents and grandparents (called **Hybrids**). These have been developed for production by selecting from the best **strains**. Examples of commercial laying hybrids are Hisex Brown and Babcock Brown 380. All the brown egg laying hybrids are based on the **Rhode Island Red** while the white egg layers are based on the **White Leghorn**. Hybrids are generally the best choice for commercial production. Some have been bred for laying, while broilers are developed for the table. Initially developed for intensive battery and broiler conditions, hybrids have also been bred for free-range conditions.  The layers are slightly heavier at point-of-lay so that they are better equipped to cope with outside conditions. Examples include Black Rock, Bovans Nera, Hebden Black, Lohmann Brown, Speckledy, Hisex Ranger, Calder Ranger (originally Columbian Blacktail) and Babcock B380. The most common broiler birds are the white feathered Cobb 500 and Ross broilers. These were bred for intensive conditions and grow quickly, although they do adapt to outside conditions.  Commercial Hybrid Breeds ***Task: Create. Using internet research create a mind map chart that shows 6 different hybrid commercial hen breeds used in the UK.*** ***The mind map needs to:*** - ***include both Layer and Broiler branches.*** - ***Provide a brief description of each bird, main characteristics*** - ***The original parentage breeds*** - ***Explain why they have been developed.*** **Housing Hens** Depending on the size and type of poultry housing various types of equipment are used in poultry farms. Important poultry equipment includes Perches, feed hoppers, fogger, heaters, Watering devices, de beakers, chicken guards, laying nests and brooding boxes. Types of Housing **Free-range poultry are generally housed in static barns or aviaries with access for the birds to the range through pop-holes, either directly or through an enclosed verandah or in mobile housing.** **There are a number of housing related issues that influence welfare to be considered, including where the house is sited, the environment within the house, including the 'furnishings' such as nest boxes, perches, feeders and drinkers, the litter, access to light and the access to outdoors.** Mobile houses There are basically two forms of mobile housing: those that are large and are moved between batches and the smaller ark-type houses that are moved more frequently. Ark type houses are limited by their size and are labour intensive. However, they do permit good disease control through frequent rotation. Mobile house systems naturally restrict group size, as there is a practical limit to the size of a house. Mobile systems, particularly on the larger scale, lend themselves more easily to integration into a whole farming system. Static or fixed houses Fixed house systems, the main advantage of static housing for poultry is that it is easier to find automatic or semi-automatic solutions for the provision of feedstuffs, water and for the collection of eggs and droppings, which means that the costs per bird are likely to be lower. Regarding disease control, static houses do not lend themselves well to paddock systems that enable reduced risk of parasite burdens, particularly helminths. There are also risks involved in the build-up of mud around static houses, which may be carried into houses and cause contamination of birds and fittings and provide damp conditions that predispose birds to health issues. Static houses are normally either floor-based or aviary systems. Floor-based systems are frequently simply covered straw-yards. These systems are normally used for table-bird production Large Indoor Units Large indoor units are developed to manage very large numbers of poultry in a single building economically. By keeping birds housed inside large units, it enables the farm to manage feed, as well as the health and climate conditions of birds, minimising disease and maximising growth over the 40day period. Large indoor units are used to produce Broiler birds, as we have seen there has been a substantial growth in the Free-Range egg market to the point where consumers will avoid eggs produced in intensive environments such as large indoor units. At this point consumer sentiment does not extend to the broiler market, with cost price remaining the main decider by consumers. Keeping Poultry in Healthy Conditions ***Task:*** Complete the following questions Create a diagram that identifies the key reasons for Poultry Housing Research and explain five important pieces of farming equipment required in poultry housing: - *Perches,* - *feed hoppers,* - *fogger,* - *heaters,* - *Watering devices,* - *de beakers,* - *chicken guards,* - *laying nests and brooding boxes* What are the differences between Mobile and Static housing? What are the benefits of mobile housing? What is a major limitation of mobile housing? Create a table that identifies the advantages and disadvantages of Static Housing. Which type of poultry is kept in large indoor units? What are two reasons that a farmer would choose a large indoor unit? **Feeding Poultry** Poultry nutrition needs to be more specific compared to ruminants as they are simple stomached and lack teeth. The nutritional necessities of poultry are basically expressed in terms of crude **protein** and **energy** content per kilogram of feed. Birds reared for various purposes and in different age groups vary widely in their requirement. Generally, i*n a commercial set-up*, it is seen that feed alone accounts for 60-70% of the cost of production of meat and eggs. So any attempt to improve the economics of poultry rearing essentially should encompass nutritional management. The digestive system The [[digestive system of poultry]](https://poultrykeeper.com/digestive-system-problems/digestive-system-chicken/) is quite different from other animals as they lack teeth. The major parts are the crop (an extension of the oesophagus). This is followed by the proventriculus, the glandular stomach and gizzard, the muscular stomach. Digestive enzymes and acids are produced in the former while the latter mechanically grind the food. The addition of [[poultry grit]](https://poultrykeeper.com/keeping-chickens/poultry-grit/) in feeds further aids digestion as they may be present in the gizzard. Poultry feed ingredients The major nutrients in feed include water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and oils, minerals, vitamins and feed additives. Their utilization varies with the digestibility of the nutrients and bioavailability for metabolism. Formulating a balanced ration for [[feeding chickens]](https://poultrykeeper.com/keeping-chickens/feeding-chickens/) needs to consider the digestibility, bioavailability, presence of anti-nutritional and toxic factors etc. Rations usually contain 16-28% crude protein and 2500 -3200K calories of Energy per kilo of feed. As no single feed ingredient can supply all the essential nutrients at the required level, we go for combinations of feedstuffs in the poultry nutrition ration. The feed may be formulated using as few as 5-6 ingredients, or it may go up to 15-18 when micronutrient sources and feed additives are added. However, regardless, the base of every good poultry feed is at least **one cereal grain**. Poultry farmers preparing feed on their own often experience wide variations in the performance of birds even though the formulations, proximate principles, texture etc., remain almost the same. This may be due to the fluctuations in the **quality of nutrients** present in each raw material. Feed Nutrition & Poultry Growth ***Task:*** Complete the following questions What are the two main nutritional considerations needed when considering poultry feed? LIVESTOCK HOUSING Modern Livestock Housing for Beef Cattle **Task**: Create a PowerPoint presentation on ***modern livestock housing for beef cattle.*** Your presentation should cover the following points: - Protection against extreme weather -- heat and cold. - Livestock health and welfare - minimising stress on the animals. - Environment -- reducing the pollution risk and visual impact on the surrounding environment. **The guidelines:** Each slide should contain notes and an appropriate photograph. Label your photographs. Use quotation marks and reference any websites you have gained information from.