20C Korean Literature PDF

Week 8: 20C Korean Literature 1 20C Korean Literature* *Nam-ho, Y., Chanje, U., Kwangho, Y., & Mihyon, K. (2005). Twentieth-Century Korean Literature. 2 1. The Rise of Modern Literature (1900- 1945) ◎ Soc...

Week 8: 20C Korean Literature 1 20C Korean Literature* *Nam-ho, Y., Chanje, U., Kwangho, Y., & Mihyon, K. (2005). Twentieth-Century Korean Literature. 2 1. The Rise of Modern Literature (1900- 1945) ◎ Socio-Political Transformations: - Early 20th century Korea saw a shift from Chosŏn(조선) dynasty to modern society. - Resistance to modernization from traditionalists, alongside external pressures from Chinese, Russian, and Japanese forces. - Korea annexed by Japan in 1910 after Japan’s victory in regional conflicts. 3 1. The Rise of Modern Literature (1900- 1945) ◎ Colonial Rule & Resistance - Japan’s oppressive colonial system triggered the March 1st Independence Movement (1919). - Korean intellectuals turned to “cultural nationalism” through literature and education as a form of resistance. ◎ Cultural Suppression During War - Japan’s intensified colonial control during World War II led to suppression of Korean identity. - Korean language banned, and Japanese surnames imposed. - Liberation in 1945 marked Korea’s freedom post-World War II. 4 1. The Rise of Modern Literature (1900- 1945) ◎ Development of Modern Korean Literature: - Emergence of Korean script and newspapers in the late 19th century expanded literacy. - Modern literature reflected new perceptions of individuality and societal change. - Yi Kwangsu(이광수)’s The Heartless (무정, 1917) marked a turning point in Korean fiction. 5 1.1 Two Moderns: Yi Kwangsu (이광수) ◎ Historical Context - 1910: Japan annexed Korea, ending its sovereignty. - Intellectuals blamed the weakness of the Chosŏn (조선) dynasty. - Call for modernization to reinvigorate the nation. 6 1.1 Two Moderns: Yi Kwangsu (이광수) ◎ Yi Kwangsu(이광수), Enlightenment Thinker - Saw literature as a tool for enlightening people. - Advocated reform of out of date traditions and social institutions. - Stressed individuality, free love, and modern education in his works. - Major works: 'The Heartless’, 'Young Sacrifice'. 7 1.1 Two Moderns: Yi Kwangsu (이광수) ◎ The Heartless (무정, 1917) - First modern Korean novel entirely written in Korean. - Plot: Love triangle involving modern and traditional women. - Explores tensions between traditional values and modern ideas of free will and individuality. -Liberation of women from patriarchal customs. - Importance of rationality, science, and modern education. 8 1.1 Two Moderns: Yi Kwangsu (이광수) ◎ Yi Kwangsu’s Contribution to Literature - Yi Kwangsu’s works laid the foundation for modern Korean literature. - The Heartless set the stage for more explorations of individuality and society. - His advocacy for modern education and reform was central to Korean intellectual life. 9 1.2 Two Moderns: Kim Tong-in (김동인) ◎ Opposition to Enlightenment Literature: Kim Tong-in - Kim Tong-in’s View on Literature: different from Yi Kwangsu - Rejected the idea that literature should teach a lesson or reflect reality. - Fiction was an act of artistic creation, a “created world.” - Stressed autonomy of literature as art, with a focus on aestheticism. - Innovator of modern Korean narrative techniques, emphasizing the past tense and third-person narrator. 10 1.2 Two Moderns: Kim Tong-in (김동인) ◎ Themes in Kim Tong-in’s Works: Modern Life Tragedy - His works often reflect the tragedy of modern life with a detached tone. - Explores social taboos, such as sexual desires outside societal norms. ◎ Kim Tong-in’s Contribution to Korean Literature: Innovative Approach - Helped establish modern narrative techniques in Korean fiction. - Focused on the autonomy of art and the complexity of human desires and emotions. 11 1.3 Elegies for a Lost Era: Kim Sowŏl (김소월) ◎ Historical Context Following the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, the 1920s saw heightened oppression, leading to profound national loss. Korean poetry of the time often expressed the sorrow of losing both homeland and identity, symbolized through personal loss and unfulfilled love. ◎ Kim Sowŏl (김소월, 1902-1934)’s Themes Explored yearning and loss, reflecting the collective sorrow of the Korean people. Poems often used familiar folk rhythms and imagery, evoking national identity through intimate and relatable language. 12 1.3 Elegies for a Lost Era: Kim Sowŏl (김소월) ◎ Key Work: “Azaleas”(진달래) A poem expressing love and loss, using natural imagery like flowers and mountains to symbolize emotional and national separation. ◎ Poetic Style Utilized traditional folksong elements. His poetry combined romantic yearning with existential loneliness, transforming absence into love’s paradoxical depth. Focused on passionate longing, sorrow, and personal loss. His poems express a deep connection with nature and a longing for an unattainable love. 13 1.4 Elegies for a Lost Era: Han Yong-un (한용운) ◎ Background A poet and Buddhist monk, Han Yong-un infused his poetry with themes of silence, love, and resistance. Known for meditative, nationalist, and metaphysical poetry that addressed both love and the loss of the nation. ◎ Key Work: “The Silence of Love” (1926) Describes love’s departure, with hope for reunion. Explores loss, sorrow, and the paradox of love growing stronger through separation. 14 1.4 Elegies for a Lost Era: Han Yong-un (한용운) 15 1.4 Elegies for a Lost Era: Han Yong-un (한용운) ◎ Poetic Style His works combined Buddhist meditation with the struggle for Korean independence. “Love” in his poetry often symbolizes both a human lover and the Korean nation under colonial rule, making his poems resonate on multiple levels. Emphasized silence and resilience, linking personal love to the nation’s struggle for independence. His poems are infused with both romantic and nationalist themes, reflecting Buddhist teachings of endurance and hope. 16  1.5 Social Consciousness and the Rise of Realist Fiction ◎ Yŏm Sangsŏp (염상섭, 1897-1963) Known for his detailed characterization and depictions of everyday life. Emphasized literature as a separate, autonomous art form. Key works: Before Manse (1922) and Three Generations (1931). ◎ Ch’ae Mansik (채만식, 1902-1956) Master satirist who exposed the contradictions of Korea’s colonial reality. Critiqued greed, moral decay, and societal contradictions under Japanese rule. Key works: Peace Under Heaven (1938), Murky Waters (1938), A Ready-made Life (1934). 17  1.6 Colonial pastorals: rural sketches in time of oppression ◎ Backgrounds In the 1930s, Korean literature often explored rural life and the impact of colonial oppression, with writers like Kim Yujŏng(김유정), Yi Hyosŏk(이효석), and Yi T’aejun(이태준) creating narratives that merged humor, nature, and social critique. These writers used rural and pastoral settings to explore the complexities of human life under Japanese colonial rule, blending humor, nature, and social critique to reveal the deep injustices of the era. 18  1.6 Colonial pastorals: rural sketches in time of oppression ◎ Writers Kim Yujŏng(김유정): His works are set in the rural mountain villages of Kangwŏn Province, portraying peasants’ lives without ideological framing. Stories like Spring, Spring and Camellias humorously depict the struggles of poor farmers, highlighting their social conflicts and personal desires. Through clever and light-hearted storytelling, Kim subtly critiques the harsh realities of the colonial rural economy, such as class tension and exploitation by middle-men. Yi Hyosŏk(이효석): Known for combining nature and sexuality, Yi’s work reflects a shift from his earlier socialist sympathies to aesthetic explorations. His famous story When Buckwheat Blooms (메밀꽃 필무렵) presents a lyrical and romantic portrayal of nature, where human desires and experiences are sublimated into natural settings, free from societal constraints. His portrayal of nature contrasts sharply with the hardships of colonial life. 19  1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination ◎ Backgrounds During the second half of Korea’s colonial period, poets like Yi Sang(이상), Chŏng Chi-yong(정지용), and Yun Tongju(윤동주) expanded poetic imagination, experimenting with language and form while exploring deeper psychological and existential themes. These poets expanded the boundaries of Korean poetic expression, combining lyrical beauty with formal experimentation and deep introspection, while addressing the existential crises of their time. 20  1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination ◎ Poets Yi Sang (이상, 1910-37): A key avant-garde figure, Yi Sang used experimental language, incorporating mathematical and architectural symbols in his poetry to express the fragmented self, disconnected from the outside world. His poem Mirror exemplifies this fragmentation, reflecting the poet’s existential isolation. Yi Sang’s later shift to fiction continued his focus on the inner psyche, using self- analysis and irony to explore the anxieties of modern life. His innovative approach to poetic and narrative form placed him at the forefront of Korean literary modernism. 21  1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination Yi Sang: Mirror How could I’ve ever done something like meet myself in a mirror In a mirror there is no sound I don’t have a mirror on me now but there’s There is probably no world so quiet always an I in the depths of one In the mirror also are my ears I’m not sure but he’s probably sunk in some sinistral project Two pathetic ears are there unable to hear my words The I in the mirror is truly my opposite but In the mirror I’m left-handed Also takes after me considerably Lefty that can’t take my handshake – who doesn’t When I can’t worry over and examine the mirror’s know how to shake hands I I get very depressed Because of the mirror I can’t touch the mirror’s I (Translated by Walter K. Lew) but if it were not a mirror 22  1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination ◎ Poets Chŏng Chi-yong (정지용, 1903-?): Known for his mastery of the Korean language and disciplined poetic form, Chŏng expanded the possibilities of Korean poetry through his use of musicality and restraint. His early works reflect an “imagist” style, while his later poetry, influenced by his conversion to Catholicism, emphasizes transcendence and harmony with nature. His poem Window, I reveals a grieving father’s sorrow, expressed through controlled and tempered language. Chŏng’s influence extended to younger poets of the “Green Deer School,” who admired his contributions to Korean modern poetry. 23  1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination ◎ Poets Yun Tongju (윤동주, 1917-45): Writing under the severe oppression of Japanese colonial rule, Yun’s poems express the internalized agonies of the colonized consciousness. His work is characterized by an “aesthetics of shame,” a self-examination through which he confronts personal and national suffering. In his poem Another Home, Yun expresses a desire for spiritual renewal and the recovery of an untainted self, envisioning a future “home” where integrity and honor can be restored. His poetry captures the struggles of maintaining conscience and identity in a repressive environment. 24 1.7 Expansion of poetic imagination Yun Tongju (윤동주): Another Home Barks all night at darkness. The night I returned home, The dog that barks at darkness My bones followed me to my bed. Must be chasing me. The dark room merged with the universe, Let’s go, let’s go, The wind blew like a voice from heaven. Like someone pursued. Poring over my bones Let’s go to another beautiful home That glow quietly in the dark, That my bones don’t know about. I don’t know whether it’s myself that weeps, (Translated by Peter H. Lee) My bones, or my beautiful soul. A faithful dog 25 2. 1945 - 1970 : Liberation and the Korean War ◎ Liberation and Ideological Division (1945) Japanese rule ended in 1945 after 36 years. Korea faced the task of building a modern nation-state, but ideological divisions and Cold War politics led to the creation of two separate governments—North and South Korea. The Korean War (1950-1953) further devastated the country, leaving it divided and polarized. 26  2. 1945 - 1970 : Liberation and the Korean War ◎ Post-War Political Struggles and Economic Hardships Syngman Rhee’s anti-communist regime struggled with corruption and failed to address economic devastation or improve living conditions. Widespread poverty persisted throughout the 1950s. The 1960 “April 19 Revolution” ousted Rhee, but a military coup in 1961 placed General Park Chung-hee (박정희) in power. Park pursued rapid economic growth at the cost of social conflict, especially for peasants and laborers. 27  2. 1945 - 1970 : Liberation and the Korean War ◎ Literary Revival of the Korean Language The end of Japanese rule allowed writers to rediscover and explore the expressive potential of the Korean language, which had been banned under Japanese colonialism. Fiction focused on universal human themes rather than historical ideologies, with writers like O Yŏngsu(오영수) and Kim Tongni(김동리) using folk traditions and shamanism. ◎ Poetry: Revival of Lyric Tradition and Modernist Experimentation Poets like Pak Mog-wŏl(박목월), Sŏ Chŏngju(서정주), and Yu Ch’ihwan(유치환) revived the tradition of Korean lyric poetry, emphasizing the Korean language. Modernist poetry emerged, with figures like Kim Su-yŏng(김수영) and Pak Inhwan(박인환) exploring new urban sensibilities and critical views on authority and society. 28  2. 1945 - 1970 : Liberation and the Korean War ◎ The 4.19 Generation and New Literary Sensibilities The “April 19 Revolution” inspired the “4.19 Generation” of writers, who overcame the nihilism of the previous generation and embraced a new vision of freedom and creativity. Writers like Hong Sŏngwŏn(홍성원), Yi Ch’ŏngjun(이청준), and Kim Sŭng-ok(김승옥) introduced innovative themes and styles, marking a turning point in Korean literature’s development. 29  2.1 Abundance amid privation : the poetry of Sŏ Chŏngju ◎ Post-Liberation Poetry and Expansion of Korean Poetics After Liberation, Korean poets gained newfound freedom to explore the Korean language and human life from broader perspectives. Sŏ Chŏngju (서정주, 1915-2000), known as “Midang,”(미당) was a central figure in expanding Korean poetry, writing over 800 poems that explored traditional Korean life and history. ◎ Early Poetry: Sensuality and Physicality Sŏ’s early works, like Flower Snake Collection (1941), emphasized sensuality and primal drives, breaking away from traditional views equating beauty with moral goodness. His poetry reflected youthful passion, with themes of desire, chaos, and a rejection of societal order. 30  2.1 Abundance amid privation : the poetry of Sŏ Chŏngju ◎ Transition to Sorrow and Reflection In The Nightingale’s Return (1948), Sŏ Chŏngju’s work evolved to reflect a more reflective tone, exploring sorrow and the resilience of life. His mature works, like The Selected Poems of Sŏ Chŏngju (1956), displayed a deep contemplation of life’s suffering and historical events, such as the Korean War and Liberation. ◎ Philosophical and Mystical Depth Later collections, such as The Essence of Silla and Winter Sky (1968), showed a shift toward exploring deeper philosophical and mystical themes, with influences from Buddhism and ancient Korean history. Sŏ embraced life’s contradictions, contemplating the cycle of change, reincarnation, and the beauty of existence. 31  2.1 Abundance amid privation : the poetry of Sŏ Chŏngju ◎ Embracing Tradition and Rural Life In Lessons of Chilmajae (1975), Sŏ Chŏngju returned to memories of his childhood, using rural village life as a symbol of eternity and unity between the sacred and the everyday. His poems reflect compassion for the struggles of ordinary life, expressing a wisdom that arises from embracing both suffering and the eternal rhythms of nature. ◎ Criticism and Legacy Some have criticized Sŏ Chŏngju for idealizing the past and avoiding the existential tensions of modern life, while others highlight his poetic critique of modernization. Despite controversies, Sŏ’s poetry is celebrated for its profound connection to Korean language and life, expressing sensuality, longing, and the resilience of the Korean spirit. 32  2.2 Exploring nature and life: Yu Ch’ihwan and Pak Mog-wŏl ◎ Poetry after Liberation: Return to Purity and Lyricism In the aftermath of ideological strife and war, poets like Yu Ch’ihwan(유치환) and Pak Mog-wŏl(박목월) sought to return to traditional lyricism, exploring nature and life while avoiding direct political or historical commentary. ◎ Poetic Legacy Both poets left significant marks on modern Korean literature. Yu Ch’ihwan’(유치환)s poetry is noted for its moral depth and existential reflection, while Pak Mog-wŏl’(박목월)s work is celebrated for its rich connection to nature, folk traditions, and the dignity of everyday life. 33  2.2 Exploring nature and life: Yu Ch’ihwan and Pak Mog-wŏl ◎ Yu Ch’ihwan: Strength, Moral Rigor, and Love Yu Ch’ihwan (1908-67) emphasized moral strength and the struggle to overcome life’s meaninglessness. His early works reflect a harsh self-discipline and existential contemplation, using symbols like rocks and trees to express an unbending human spirit. Yu’s poetry balances masculine strength with a subtle undercurrent of sorrow and longing, particularly evident in his love poems. His writing reflects both Korea’s turbulent modern history and his personal struggle to live an ethical life. Collections such as With the Infantrymen (1951) and Burying Songs of Fire (1960) express his meditations on the Korean War and political turmoil, blending moral concepts with lyrical reflection. 34 2.2 Exploring nature and life: Yu Ch’ihwan and Pak Mog-wŏl ◎ Yu Ch’ihwan: Flag That soundless clamor. Eternal Nostalgia’s handkerchief Fluttering toward the blue expanse. Purity waves in the wind. Sorrow spreads its wings like a heron On that pure and straight pole of Ideal. Who first hoisted that sad mind in the sky? (Translated by Ko Changsu) 35  2.2 Exploring nature and life: Yu Ch’ihwan and Pak Mog-wŏl ◎ Pak Mog-wŏl: Nature, Folk Spirit, and Everyday Life Pak Mog-wŏl (1916-78) is known for incorporating the rhythm of Korean folksongs into his poetry, celebrating the natural landscape and folk traditions. His early collections, like Green Deer (1946) and The Mountain Peach (1955), use symbolic representations of nature to evoke the Korean spirit. His mid-career poems, such as those in Clarity and Haze (1964), shift focus from symbolic nature to the quiet beauty of daily life, exploring themes of home, family, and ordinary existence. In his later works, like Fallen Leaves in Kyŏngsang Province (1968), Pak returns to folk elements, utilizing the dialect and musicality of his native region to deepen his connection to traditional Korean life and beliefs. 36  2.3 Tradition and humanity: Kim Tongni (김동리) and Hwang Sunwŏn(황순원) ◎ Religious Orientation and Humanism Both Kim Tongni and Hwang Sunwŏn integrate religious themes and humanistic approaches in their works, exploring life, death, tradition, and modernity. They focus on individual consciousness and human experiences, emphasizing endurance and survival amidst suffering, especially in relation to the trauma of the Korean War. ◎ Themes of Survival, Love, and Salvation Both authors highlight the human capacity to endure suffering and seek redemption. Kim Tongni’s works emphasize spiritual and philosophical exploration, while Hwang Sunwŏn’s focus on love and purity provides a humanist lens through which to view conflict and reconciliation. Their works collectively explore the tension between tradition and modernity, offering insights into the complexities of Korean identity and human resilience. 37  2.4 Currents in Fiction: Political Life and Existential Life ◎ Impact of War and Division The Korean War and national division deeply influenced the literature of the 1950s, with writers exploring the trauma and suffering caused by these events. However, their focus was initially limited to immediate reactions rather than deeper reflections on the broader historical and existential issues. Writers, each in their distinct styles, expanded the scope of Korean fiction to include existential inquiries, critiques of ideology, and deeper explorations of human consciousness in the aftermath of war and division. 38  3. 1970 - 1990 : Literature in an Industrializing Society ◎ Context of 1970s Korea Political Turmoil: The Yusin reforms (1972) established President Park Chung-hee’s military dictatorship, suppressing political freedoms until his assassination in 1979. Rapid Economic Growth: The “miracle on the Han River” brought rapid industrialization, but at a high cost: a growing gap between rich and poor, environmental damage, and labor grievances. Youth & Dissidence: A new youth culture emerged, expressing itself through music, fashion, and protests against the government. 39  3. 1970 - 1990 : Literature in an Industrializing Society ◎ 1980s Political Shifts: The assassination of President Park in 1979 sparked hopes for democracy, which were dashed by another military dictatorship. The violent suppression of the 1980 Kwangju Uprising intensified the demand for democracy. By the late 1980s, constitutional reforms and democratic elections laid the groundwork for a democratic order, and the country saw further economic growth and international recognition (1988 Seoul Olympics). 40  3. 1970 - 1990 : Literature in an Industrializing Society ◎ Themes in Fiction: Industrialization: Writers like Hwang Sŏg-yŏng(황석영), Yun Hŭnggil(윤흥길), and Cho Sehŭi(조세희) explored themes of industrialization, labor exploitation, and the widening class divide. National Division: Writers such as Kim Wŏnil(김원일) and Cho Chŏngnae(조정래) reflected on the trauma of the Korean War and the enduring division of the nation. Women’s Lives: Female authors like Pak Kyŏngni(박경리) and Pak Wansŏ(박완서) focused on the turbulent history of Korea, often through the experiences of women. 41 3. 1970 - 1990 : Literature in an Industrializing Society ◎ 1980s Literature: Radical Approaches: Writers like Kim Yŏnghŏn(김영헌) and poets such as Pak Nohae(박노해) tackled capital- labor conflicts and laborer alienation. Subtle Exploration: Writers like Yi Munyŏl(이문열) offered more nuanced treatments of the times, blending rich imagination with diverse themes, including human existence and Korea’s division. 42 3. 1970 - 1990 : Literature in an Industrializing Society ◎ Women Writers & Poets: The period saw the emergence of female voices like O Chŏnghŭi(오정희), Kang Sŏkkyŏng(강석경), and Kim Chaewŏn(김재원) in fiction, and poets like Ch’oe Sŭngja(최승자) and Kim Hyesun(김혜순), who addressed issues of gender and individual expression. 43  3.1 The Shadows Cast by Industrialization ◎ Impact of Industrialization: Economic Growth & Exclusion: While Korea experienced rapid industrialization in the 1970s, laborers, peasants, and the urban poor were largely excluded from the economic benefits, leading to increased social conflicts. ◎ Key Themes: Social Justice: Writers like Hwang Sŏg-yŏng(황석영) and Cho Sehŭi (조세희) critiqued the exploitation of laborers and the devastation of communities brought about by industrialization. Loss of Tradition: Yi Mun-gu’s(이문구) works lament the destruction of traditional rural values as industrialization spreads. Materialism & Alienation: Stories by Yun Hŭnggil(윤흥길) and others highlight the alienation of individuals as material wealth becomes the new determinant of social status. 44  3.3 The expression of social concerns in poetry ◎ Key Themes: The poetry of 1970s and 1980s Korea expressed growing social concerns, particularly in response to political oppression and industrialization. Poets like Ko Ŭn(고은), Shin Kyŏngnim(신경림), and Kim Chiha(김지하) tackled themes of social justice, the impact of industrialization, and authoritarian regimes, weaving traditional elements with modern criticism. poets used their craft to challenge the status quo, blending lyrical beauty with sharp social critique, capturing the voices of the marginalized and oppressed. 45  3.4 Women’s voices ◎ Background In the 1970s and 1980s, Korean literature saw the emergence of accomplished women writers who explored diverse themes with depth and maturity. Writers like Pak Kyŏngni(박경리), Pak Wansŏ(박완서), Ch’oe Myŏnghŭi(최명희), and O Chŏnghŭi(오정희) gained recognition for their skill in portraying the complexities of women’s lives, no longer viewed through a separate lens but as equal contributors to Korean literature. Writers significantly expanded the scope of Korean literature by addressing themes of family, identity, oppression, and societal change, reflecting both the personal and collective struggles of Korean women. 46  3.4 Women’s voices ◎ Writers 1. Pak Kyŏngni(박경리): Best known for her epic family saga Land (1969-1994), Pak Kyŏngni explores Korean history through the lives of four generations. Her work emphasizes land not just as physical ground but as a symbol of the maternal, a source of life, healing, and collective identity. Through her characters, she reflects on the pain of history and the enduring nature of life and family. 2. Pak Wansŏ(박완서): Focusing on everyday life, Pak Wansŏ critiques middle-class materialism and the oppressive nature of domesticity. Her works like Mother’s Stake II and Children of Paradise reveal the alienation and vanity of modern society, especially among women trapped in patriarchal expectations. Her writing is celebrated for its accessible storytelling, realistic details, and sharp social critique. 47  3.5 Explorations of existence and quests for new language ◎ Background In the 1970s and beyond, several Korean poets explored existential themes and experimented with language and form. Unlike poets focused on sociopolitical issues like the minjung (common people), poets such as Hwang Tonggyu(황동규), Chŏng Hyŏnjong(정현종), and O Kyuwŏn(오규원) delved into the interior landscape of individuals, employing irony, paradox, and complex linguistic strategies to reflect the distorted reality and dehumanizing effects of industrialization. Their works often veered into the abstract, using innovative language to expand the poetic imagination. Poets broadened the scope of Korean poetry by addressing complex existential questions and experimenting with the very language of expression, creating a distinctive and reflective body of work that continues to influence modern Korean literature. 48  3.6 Expansions of fictional space ◎ Background In the 1980s, Korean fiction expanded both in form and content to reflect the increasing complexity of society. Writers like Yi Munyŏl(이문열), Pak Yŏng-han(박영한), Yang Kuija(양귀자), Kang Sŏkkyŏng(강석경), and Im Ch’ŏr-u(임철우) explored different dimensions of modern Korean life, using varied settings and thematic concerns to delve into internal struggles rather than external conflicts. These novelists used a range of techniques—allegory, realism, existential reflection—to navigate the inner turmoil and societal changes of 1980s Korea, expanding the boundaries of Korean fiction. 49  3.7 “The Era of Poetry” and deconstructions of language ◎ Background The early 1980s in Korea is often referred to as the “Era of Poetry” due to the remarkable energy and creativity of young poets, who attracted significant attention and readership despite heavy political censorship. During this period, poets such as Yi Sŏngbok(이승복), Hwang Chi-u(황치우), Ch’oe Sŭngho(최성호), Pak Namch’ŏl(박남철), Ch’oe Sŭngja(최성자), Kim Hyesun(김혜순), and Chang Chŏng-il(장정일) expressed their hostility toward the establishment and authority by deconstructing traditional poetic language and form. Their dissident voices reflected the existential struggles of the time, using innovative, often rebellious, language that resonated with a wide audience. These poets deconstructed language and poetic form to articulate their resistance against political oppression and the existential struggles of their era, making this period a dynamic and transformative time for Korean poetry. 50  4. 1990-2000: Literature in a Consumer Society ◎ Shift from Social Causes to Consumerism 1980s: Literature focused on social concerns, class conflicts, and human rights under military dictatorships, advocating for democracy and collective values. 1990s: After the 1992 election of a civilian government and the end of the Cold War, disillusionment set in. Political freedom increased, and the focus shifted from collective action to personal happiness and consumerism. Consumer Culture: Post-1988 Seoul Olympics, Korea entered an era of intense consumerism, with material abundance, leisure industries, and popular culture dominating society. 51  4. 1990-2000: Literature in a Consumer Society ◎ Rise of Individualism and Popular Culture Changing Values: In the 90s, personal desires took precedence over collective interests. Younger generations embraced hedonism, breaking from traditional social norms. Technology & Internet: The internet revolution reshaped Korean society, enabling rapid access to global digital culture. By the late 90s, Korea had the highest internet usage rate in the world. ◎ Rise of Female Writers Feminine Desire & Liberation: Women writers such as Shin Kyŏngsuk(신경숙), Kong Chiyŏng(공지영), and Kim Insuk(김인숙) explored themes of female desire, liberation, and breaking away from patriarchal norms. Their works often depicted women challenging societal customs, family constraints, and pursuing sexual freedom. 52  4. 1990-2000: Literature in a Consumer Society ◎ Impact on Literature and the Arts Poetry: Young poets like Chang Chŏng-il(장정일) and Yu Ha(유하) explored themes of alienation, loss of identity, and the emptiness behind consumer culture’s allure. Their works reflected the confusion of values in a society driven by desires. Fiction: Writers such as Kim Yŏng-ha(김영하) and Yun Taenyŏng(윤대녕) depicted characters leading consumption-driven lives, often highlighting the emptiness and meaninglessness of this existence. Other writers, like Ha Ilchi(하일지) and Shin Kyŏngsuk(신경숙), resisted the new world of consumerism through different narrative styles, criticizing its lack of fulfillment. 53  4.1 Urban Imagery and the Renewal of Lyric ◎ Key Themes Consumer Culture: Poets like Chang Chŏng-il and Yu Ha explore the allure and emptiness of consumer-driven urban life. Nostalgia & Alienation: Poets such as Chang Sŏngnam(장성남) and Ch’oe Chŏngnye(최정례) reflect on alienation in modern cityscapes and seek solace in memories of the rural past. Lyric Renewal: The 1990s saw a shift in Korean lyric poetry, balancing critique of modern life with quiet reflection on the emotional and existential undercurrents beneath urban realities. 54  4.2 The Self on Shifting Ground: Fiction in a Consumer Society ◎ Shin Kyŏngsuk (신경숙, 1963-) Her writing focuses on the inner dimensions of individuals, particularly women with psychological wounds, often from unrequited love or loss. “A Room Apart” (1995): A semi-autobiographical novel about her personal journey to becoming a writer, with the backdrop of political and social unrest in 1980s Korea. Shin’s works emphasize personal pain and the process of self- discovery over social realities. 55  4.2 The Self on Shifting Ground: Fiction in a Consumer Society ◎ Key Themes: Fragmented Self: Characters in Shin Kyŏngsuk and Yun Taenyŏng’s works are often struggling with spiritual or emotional fragmentation in a hyper-materialistic society. Digital Age: Kim Yŏng-ha’s fiction reflects the collapse of boundaries between virtual and real worlds, where communication and relationships become solipsistic or simulated. Consumerism & Alienation: All three authors explore the impact of consumer culture on individual identity, relationships, and the search for authenticity in an increasingly superficial world. 56