HL History Past Paper: China and Korea 1911-1927 PDF

The Years 1911 to 1927 saw several key developments in China: the failed attempt of an imperial general, Yuan Shikai, to bring back the Imperial throne, a period of chaos during which Warlords held sway, the emergence of the GMD as a force which could take power and the development of a new party –...

The Years 1911 to 1927 saw several key developments in China: the failed attempt of an imperial general, Yuan Shikai, to bring back the Imperial throne, a period of chaos during which Warlords held sway, the emergence of the GMD as a force which could take power and the development of a new party – the Chinese Communist Party. Guiding Questions: Why did Yuan Shikai take over as provisional President of China? What was the impact of Yuan Shikai’s rule? Who were the warlords and why did they dominate China in this period? What was the impact of Warlordism on China? What was the May Fourth Movement? What were the reasons for the May Fourth Movement? What was the significance of the May Fourth Movement? 1. Why did Yuan Shikai take over as provisional President of China? Starter Watch the following video up to 12 minutes 15 seconds and make notes on Yuan Shikai's role in China before 1911. What factors put him in a strong position to challenge both the Manchus and Sun Xian by 1911? The first decade of the 20th Century in China saw monumental change: the Boxer rising against foreigners had highlighted the deep dissatisfaction within Chinese society and had exposed the weakness of the Manchu dynasty which at this point was led by the aged Empress Dowager Cixi. Cixi’s rule lost the Manchu dynasty any last vestiges of support and following her death in 1908 it was only a matter of time before revolution against the Manchus took place. The main revolutionary force was a republican movement, the Chinese Nationalist Party or Guomindang (GMD) led by Sun Yixian. Initially, however, the key player in the drama which overthrew the Manchu Dynasty was Yuan Shikai. A military general, he was approached by the Manchus to help save them from the growing revolutionary forces. But he was unwilling to help a regime that had previously humiliated him, and he instead worked towards their overthrow. He also had no desire to hand over power to republicans who he also distrusted. Following the abdication of the Manchus a deal was struck with Sun Yixian by which Sun handed over the presidency to Yuan who became the Provisional President of China on March 10, 1912. Note that for an overview of the state of China at the time of the 1911 Revolution, refer to the ATL tasks under guiding Question One on this page: 1. Chinese Civil War: Causes (ATL) Task One ATL: Research skills Research the career of Yuan Shikai before he took over as provisional president of China in February 1912 (the video in the starter activity will help you in this). Create a fact file to show his achievements up to this point. Yuan pledged ‘Never again shall we allow the monarchical system to reappear in China’ and when he took over from Sun he accepted 3 conditions: Nanjing would remain the capital He would go to Nanjing to take up the provisional Presidency He would observe the constitution drafted by Parliament Task Two ATL: Thinking skills Discuss in pairs the following questions: Why do you think that many in China accepted the idea of having a military general as leader of China? Why did Yuan accept the position and the conditions? What would be the disadvantages of having Yuan as leader of China? Following your discussion, click on the eye for some suggestions on this 2. What was the impact of Yuan Shikai’s rule? Yuan being sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, 10 March 1912 Yuan is seen as being responsible for three main failures: Failure to create an orderly and effective system of parliamentary government Attempting to restore the monarchy Encouraging warlordism Task One ATL: Thinking skills Watch the first 14 minutes of this video lecture on Yuan Shikai 1. Why did Yuan Shikai not come to Peking (Beijing), as he had promised to do so, and how did he provide himself with an excuse to stay in Beijing? 2. How did Yuan Shikai establish his power base once he was president? 3. What was Sun Yixian's role in the new government?  4. Why did the foreign powers support Yuan Shikai and give him a loan? 5. Why did the 'Second Revolution' against Yuan Shikai fail? 6. What were the results of this for the Nationalist Party? 7. What were the the 21 Demands? 8. How did this impact on Yuan Shikai's position? 9. What three factors does the historian Fitzgerald identify as the reasons for Yuan Shikai's ultimate failure? Task Two ATL: Thinking and self-management skills 1. In pairs consider the failures of Yuan Shikai 2. Complete the attached grid below; also add the views of historians to this grid Click on the eye for suggestions 3. Now discuss possible reasons for his failures, or factors that maybe help to excuse or help to explain his failures. Add your thoughts to the grid. Click on the eye for suggestions Grid on Yuan Shikai's actions Task Three ATL: Thinking skills In pairs consider the views of the historians below on Yuan. What key points are being made in each source? Which do you agree with? Add the views to your grid from the previous task. Source One By the beginning of 1915, Yuan already had as much power as an emperor and therefore his monarchical attempt can hardly be interpreted as the first sign of overweening vanity and ambition. Because his motives must inevitable be obscure, it is also reasonable to think that Yuan was concerned with the fate of the country when the expected disorders attendant upon the swearing in of this successor occurred. The Twenty-one Demands presented by Japan to China in January, 1915 – which would have transformed China into a Japanese protectorate – could only have heightened Yuan’s sense of danger to China…' James Sheridan, China in Disintegration, 1977, pg 51 Source Two Yuan Shikai should not be dismissed simply as a self-seeking opportunist who subordinated China’s needs to his own wish for power…Despite being eventually overwhelmed by the problems he faced, Yuan’s attempts at administrative and economic reform had merit. Arguably his struggle to impose himself on the localities was a recognition on his part of a vital fact – that unless there was an effective restoration of strong central authority, China stood little chance of developing the cohesion that would enable it to grow into a modern nation state’. Lynch pg 27 Source Three [Yuan’s] mockery of the constitution, his illegal manipulation of the parliament, his methods of bribery, coercion, murder, and enslavement were an irreparable affront to public character and morale, and laid the groundwork of lawlessness and disorder in the decade that followed. Immanuel Hsü, pg 482, 4th edition Task Four ATL: Thinking and communication skills It is Beijing, June 1916 You are going to put Yuan Shikai on trial. The question before the court is that he should be tried for leaving China in a worse state than under the Manchu Dynasty, that he has acted only in his own selfish interests and has betrayed the new Chinese Republic. Divide the class into two groups. Each group will take one of the following tasks: a. To prepare a speech in defence of Yuan Shikai a. To prepare a speech to prosecute Yuan Shikai Your teacher will choose someone to be Yuan Shikai and the defence and the prosecution teams will make their cases. 3. Who were the warlords and why did they dominate China in this period? Map showing warlord coalitions in 1925. The blue area was controlled by the GMD Starter: What is the message of this map regarding the state of China in 1925? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord_Era ‘..this period…[was] the darkest in republican history’ Immanuel Hsü ‘The warlord period exemplified the extremity of China’s territorial disintegration’ John Fairbank The warlord period lasted from c.1916 to 1928 (although some historians argue that warlords existed under Yuan Shikai). A warlord was ‘a commander of a personal army, ruling or seeking to rule territory, and acting more or less independently.’ The warlord era brought chaos and anarchy to most of China. There were endless wars in this period and the warlords and their followers lived off the land and the people. Thus, although a central government theoretically still existed in Beijing the real power lay in the provinces. Nevertheless, despite the negative impact on China, the warlord era provided the background for the Intellectual Revolution, the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the reorganisation of the Guomindang (GMD). Task One ATL: Thinking skills It could be argued that the origins of warlordism go back to 19th Century China. The Taiping rebellion had been put down by provincial armies and the Self-Strengthening movement had also seen the rise of provisional armies. The reforms of 1908 to 1911 had strengthened the provinces and the 1911 revolution itself had come from the provinces. Nevertheless, we can also look to the rule of Yuan Shikai for more short-term factors. He had appointed military governments and throughout his presidency generals had worked to strengthen their armies. Indeed, Yuan had expanded his own army – the Beiyang army. Following the Second Revolution of 1913 when those men committed to a Republic were ousted, the military governors gained more power. Thus, when Yuan Shikai died, the one symbol of national unity disappeared. The roots of democracy were too shallow to survive, and the ensuing political vacuum allowed the disorder and lawlessness which had already been a feature under Yuan Shikai to become even more prominent. 4. What was the impact of Warlordism on China? Zhang Zongchang, the Warlord in Shandong The warlord armies had several characteristics: Loyalty was maintained through a variety of methods: discipline, personal loyalty, regional feeling and patriotism; Conditions varied from warlord army to army; some were very harshly treated, others drank and smoked heavily, spending more time gambling than training; Each warlord was responsible for civil and military administration. Again, treatment of domains varied greatly - with some heavily taxing the inhabitants e.g. through land tax, salt tax, opium trading and ‘protection money’. In Kwantung there were at least 30 different supplementary taxes;  Most warlords were connected in some ways with foreign political or economic concerns. By the 1920s a series of alliances had developed that divided the regions between northern and southern warlord groups. Northern warlords benefited greatly from relations with foreign powers, especially the Japanese who had increased their influence in Manchuria and northern China following the First World War; Political stances ranged from reactionary to pro-reform - some warlords did in fact have progressive ideas on agriculture and industry - but all relied on force to maintain their control; they did not work with political parties or try to set up a new dynasty; All were involved in wars to expand or defend their territory; troops looted and lived off the countryside, pillaging villages and towns. This devastated crops and caused great hardship to the peasants (many of whom were forced to join the armies, further affecting the local economies); The reliance on force as a guiding principle replaced the ideas of Confucianism which had stressed, for example, the obligation of the local elites to the peasantry. It was the peasants who suffered most from the abandonment of such a philosophy. (Though of course it also meant that peasants had more opportunity for advancement in the army.); The warlords encouraged the planting of opium to provide a source of income; Projects such as dams and irrigation projects were ignored; trade was restricted, and modernisation projects stalled; Some warlords disseminated nationalistic and patriotic ideas (such as resisting imperialism) because they believed in them as a way of legitimising their actions. Nationalist feelings in China also developed in reaction to the disunity and distress caused by warlord actions. Task One ATL: Research skills 1. Research the career of at least one of the following warlords: Zhang Zongchang (also known as the Dog Meat General) Yan Xishan, the 'Model Governor' of Shanxi Feng Yuxiang, the "Christian General" Wu Peifu, the "Philosopher General" Marshal Zhang Zuolin 2. What does the career of your chosen warlord indicate about the nature of warlordism and its impact on China? Task Two ATL: Self-management skills Using the information above and your own research add evidence to the following headings to show the results of warlordism: Economy Role of military in politics Geographical unity of China Social unity Growth of nationalism 5. What were the key features of the May Fourth Movement? Protesters against the Versailles Settlement, 1919 The May 4th Movement derives its name from a specific incident on May 4th, 1919. But the term ‘movement’ refers to the period c.1917-23 and encompasses a new cultural and intellectual movement that spread across China. Starter: Read the following two extracts. What were the main characteristics of this movement? '[The May Fourth Movement was] led by intellectuals who brought both the new cultural ideas of science and democracy and the new patriotism into a common focus in an anti-imperialist programme'. J Fairbank It was as if the far-off events at Versailles and the mounting evidence of the spinelessness of corrupt local politicians coalesced in people’s minds and impelled them to search for a way to return meaning to Chinese culture. What did it mean to be Chinese? Where was the country heading? What values should one adopt to help one in the search? In this broad sense, the May Fourth movement was an attempt to redefine China’s culture as a valid part of the modern world’ J. Spence pg. 312 Task One ATL: Thinking skills What, according to this extract from a modern text-book was the nature of the new cultural movement? The body of new ideas which emerged at this time became known as the New Cultural Movement. The main themes of this were: an attack on Confucianism and Conservatism; following Western ideas; encouraging the use of the vernacular (as opposed to the difficult classical Chinese the use of which kept power in the hands of the educated elite). Some writers followed a pragmatic approach to China’s problems looking at ways that technology, philosophy, economics could help solve China’s problems. Others took a more ideological approach looking to Marxism. However, all shared a patriotic common ground, hoping for a unified China that would be able to deal with warlordism, the exploitative landlords and foreign imperialism. Although this movement was nationwide, much of the original thinking behind it came from The Beijing University. Students supported the new ideas and issued their own publications such as ‘New Tide’ in which they attacked traditional ideas and behaviour and instead advocated western ideas of science, democracy and individualism. Task One ATL: Research skills In pairs research at least the following individuals who played a role in the new intellectual ferment. Why did they become interested in new ideas and what actions did they take to promote their ideas? Chen Duxiu Cai Yuanpei Hu Shih 6. What were the reasons for the May Fourth Movement? There were several reasons for the movement: The state of China: The Revolution of 1911 – 12 had failed to produce peace or stability. Democracy had failed, or rather had not been able to establish itself. Warlordism had meant disunity, violence and misery – there was no sense of direction. Nationalism: One of the main causes of the 1911 – 12 Revolution had been the humiliation of China by foreigners. This continued, and even intensified during the First World War with Japan’s seizure of Shandong and the humiliating 21 demands. (see below) Changes in Chinese society: Changes in Chinese society were encouraging new ideas and the growth of nationalism; the growth of Western trade was helping to create a new merchant class, the compradores. This class were generally nationalistic and politically conscious. The First World War had encouraged the growth of trade and commerce in China thus increasing the size and importance of this class. The growth of cities also led to an increase in the working class; the people who moved to work in the factories were generally more open to new ideas. With the decline of the old-style gentry who had been the leaders in society, students were emerging as the new leaders; many of the active ones had studied abroad and thus tended to be more conscious of China’s problems on their return. Indeed, many returned to China specifically to protest against the 21 Demands. Events of 1917: May Fourth incident In the context of this intellectual excitement, the May Fourth Incident took place. What was this? In 1898 Germany had leased Jiaozhou (Kiachow) for 99 years. In the First World War Japan expelled the Germans from Jiaozhou and took over most of Shandong. Japan had then tried to get consent for this occupation via the 21 Demands which required China to recognise Japan’s position in Shandong. China prevaricated but then, following a revised set of demands published on 26 April 1915, China agreed to a Japanese ultimatum (which threatened war if they did not agree). Russia recognised the 21 Demands in February 1917 and Japan then continued to extend its influence in Shandong. In September 1918, an agreement was reached between Japan and the Beijing government by which Japan won the right to build two railways in Shandong, station troops there and control the Chinese railway guards - in return for loans to the Beijing government. However, the Chinese believed that the Versailles Conference following the First World War would work in their favour given Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points which emphasised self-determination. But Japan had in fact signed separate agreements with Britain, France and Italy getting them to support Japan’s position at the peace conference and at the end of April 1919, the Versailles Conference decided in favour of Japan on Shandong. This caused outrage in China; students at Beijing university held a large demonstration against the Versailles conference and the Beijing Ministers who had signed the secret agreement with Japan. When police arrested some students, the unrest spread across China. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Read through the 21 Demands which can be found here. In pairs discuss which demands would be most shocking to the Chinese people. Task Two ATL: Thinking and self-management skills Create a mind map to show the different factors leading to the May Fourth Movement Task Three ATL: Thinking skills Read the following which was the ‘Manifesto of All the Students of Beijing’ written by Luo Jialun, a Beijing University student. What can you learn from the source about the aims of the May Fourth Movement? "Japan’s demand for the possession of Qingdao and other rights in Shandong is now going to be acceded to in the Paris Peace Conference. Her diplomacy has secured a great victory – and ours has led to a great failure. The loss of Shandong means the destruction of the integrity of China’s territory. Once the integrity of her territory is destroyed, China will soon be annihilated. Accordingly, we students today are making a demonstration march to the Allied legations, asking the Allies to support justice. We earnestly hope that all agricultural, industrial, commercial, and other groups of the whole nation will rise and hold citizens’ meetings to strive to secure our sovereignty in foreign affairs and to get rid of the traitors at home. This is the last chance for China in her life and death struggle. Today we swear two solemn oaths with all our fellow countrymen. First, China’s territory may be conquered, but it cannot be given away. Second, the Chinese people may be massacred but they will not surrender. Our country is about to be annihilated. Up, brethren!” 7. What was the significance of the May Fourth Movement? Task One ATL: Thinking skills Read the following extracts from historians on the results of the May Fourth Movement. 1. What key point is each historian making? 2. Make a list of all of the points made regarding the significance of the May Fourth Movement. 3. Group them under the following headings: Intellectual Political Social Cultural Source A 'Now, suddenly the literary revolution was accompanied almost overnight, at least as far as the new generation were concerned. From then on they wrote about politics, economics, and philosophy, they wrote poetry, and they expressed their new passions for nationalism and socialism, in baihua - 'plain language'....this was a change almost as significant for the democratisation of culture as the replacement of Latin in Europe by the vernacular languages after the Renaissance'. Jack Grey, Rebellions and Revolutions, 1990, pg 199 Source B 'The Intellectual Revolution produced a clear shift in China's intellectual center of gravity. The rapid diffusion and acceptance of Western thought during the May Fourth Era, combined with the normal maturation of young intellectuals with western-style education, and the inevitable withdrawal of the older generation, created a Chinese intelligentsia that was clearly and definitely non-Confucian..[but]..the new intellectuals divided over social, political, and philosophical questions.' James Sheridan, China in Disintegration, 1977, pg 137 Source C '..the influx of diverse foreign ideas and ideologies caused the emergence of two opposing views on social reconstruction and national regeneration: the pragmatic, evolutionary method expounded by Hu Shih and later partially accepted by the Nationalist Party; and the Marxist revolutionary approach adopted by the Chinese Communist Party. The contemporary history of China from 1921 onward is primarily a story of the struggle between these two parties and their different approaches' Immanuel Hsü, pg 511, 4th edition Source D 'The most novel of the new ideas now widely propagated was socialism...It was in the course of the May Fourth Movement that small groups of young people came together to study socialism and in particular Marxism, and the process of creating the Communist Party began'. Jack Grey, pg 201 Task Two ATL: Thinking skills May 2019 is the 100 year anniversary of May Fourth Movement. 1. Research the news coverage of the 100 year anniversary; how is it being remembered? 2. According to this New York Times article on the anniversary, why is it an important anniversary to both the ruling Communist party and its critics? Task Three ATL: Thinking skills Listen to this BBC podcast on May 4th Movement in which journalist Melvyn Bragg leads a discussion between some leading historians on China. As you listen to the historians, add to your notes regarding the causes and the significance of this movement. In Our Time - The May Fourth Movement - BBC Sounds (BBC) Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the ideas and protests in 1919 that shaped modern China. The Nanjing Decade was a relatively stable period during which China was ruled by Jiang Jieshi, Sun Yixian's successor. However, many challenges remained and there was only limited success in creating a unified, modern state. Indeed, the seeds were sown during this period for the tumultuous events that were to follow in the next decade. This page focuses on the nature of Jiang's government and the progress made towards achieving Sun's Three Principles. The military actions of Jiang against the Communists and the Japanese during this period are covered in the next section. Guiding questions What was the legacy of Sun Yixian? Why did Jiang Jieshi take over as leader of the Nationalist Party? What was the nature of Jiang Jieshi's government? How successful was Jiang Jieshi's government in dealing with the problems facing China between 1927 and 1937? 1. What was the legacy of Sun Yixian ? As you read in the last section, the leading politician at the time of the overthrow of the Manchus in 1911 was Sun Yixian. He had established a nationalist political party, the Guomindang (GMD). He had also developed his political philosophy based on the 'Three People's Principles': a. Nationalism: the need for a strong, united China and the end of its exploitation by foreigners b. Democracy: China should become a democratic republic after an unspecified time of 'tutelage' under the GMD c. People's Livelihood: This was a vague principle which suggested that the GMD would seek to improve the economic welfare of the mass of the people, possibly by some kind of land reform. However, although he had a party and a philosophy, he lacked an army and in China after 1912, military force was needed for power. Thus although he initially had been elected President of the new Chinese Republic, Sun had stepped down in favour of Yuan Shikai in 1912. Even then, Sun still had difficulty in keeping control of his base at Guangzhou (Canton) and had to flee when he fell out with local warlords. It was not until 1923 that Sun Yixian saw the possibility of being able to achieve his aims. He came to an agreement with the Soviet Union that the GMD would establish a 'United Front' with the small and recently established Chinese Communist Party (CCP). They would receive aid from the Soviet Union and the aim of the United Front would be to defeat the warlords and establish a strong national government. This agreement, and the resulting Soviet aid, considerably improved the political prospects of the GMD. The alliance with the CCP provided the GMD with valuable links to Chinese workers and peasants. The Russians also supplied military aid. On the basis of this improved position, the aim of the GMD was to launch a 'Northern Expedition' which would move north, defeat the warlords and thus unite China. However Sun died of cancer in 1925 before the Northern Expedition had got under way. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Watch the following video on the life and ideas of Sun Yixian. Make further notes on the life of Sun and his ideas - in particular his three principles. Task Two ATL: Thinking skills Read this article from The Economist magazine on the legacy of Sun for both Taiwan and China 1. Why is Sun Yixian 'an unlikely hero'? 2. Why, despite his failures, is he to be admired? 3. What does The Economist see as the legacy of Sun for (a) Taiwan and (b) mainland China? 4. Which of Sun's ideas have not been realised? 2. Why did Jiang Jieshi take over as leader of the Nationalist Party? Jiang Jieshi was the top contender for leader of the GMD after the death of Sun Yixian. Task One ATL: Research skills Research the career of Jiang Jieshi. Write notes on the significance of the following in explaining Jiang Jieshi's rise to power: Position as head of the Whampoa Military Academy Visit to the Soviet Union Views about the left-wing of the party The Canton conspiracy The Northern Expedition The Shanghai Massacre 3. What was the nature of Jiang Jieshi's government? Soong May-ling stitching uniform for National Revolutionary Army soldiers. Following the Northern Expedition and the Shanghai Massacre, Jiang was able to establish his leadership of the party. Wang Jingwei and the left of the party, based in Guangzhou, condemned Jiang’s actions. However, Jiang went ahead and established a nationalist government under his leadership in Nanjing which became the new capital of China. The Wuhan government was crushed and Wang Jingwei fled abroad. Jiang had turned on the CCP and the ‘left’ within the GMD and had destroyed the United Front. The outcome was a victory for the GMD’s ‘right wing’. Jiang had some key strengths: he had the support of the GMD’s main military forces, significant economic support from bankers and business in Shanghai and the backing of several warlords, including Feng Yuxiang. Foreign governments subsequently recognized the new GMD regime in Nanjing as the official government. Sun Yixian had envisaged the unification of China followed by a period of 'tutelage' in which the GMD would instruct the people in the process of democracy. The Nanjing Government duly declared a period tutelage but no steps were taken to move towards democracy. A five-power government was established. Efficiency however was limited by excessive bureaucracy and frequent changes of officials. In any case, many provinces were outside its control; central government rarely operated at local level. The government also functioned through personal relationships rather than through the institutions of government; indeed Jiang preferred to operate through 'cliques'. His power base was the army. His time as commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy in the early 1920s had helped to create a network of supporters and the officer corps were the new mandarins. Jiang's marriage into the Soong family also provided vital links to the richest sectors of Chinese commerce and banking and it was from the urban middle and upper classes, symbolised by the Soong family, that the elite of the GMD was drawn. As only 4.5 % of the population lived in cities the GMD came to represent only a small proportion of the country, and the deprived peasant masses became resentful of the rural elite who also supported the GMD. The government became increasingly repressive and less popular. A former Whampoa cadet, Dai Li, headed the much feared Military Bureau of Statistics or secret police. Assassinations and illegal arrests increased and censorship was very heavy. The basic ideology of the regime was Sun's 'Three People's Principles'. However, Jiang gave the ideology a more conservative flavour. He supported some Confucian principles and in the 1930s a 'Read the Classics' movement was launched. Jiang had some sympathy with Fascism, believing in 'leadership' rather than democracy. In 1934, Jiang launched the 'New Life' movement (see below). An organisation known as the Blueshirts was also established; it was headed by Whampoa cadets, of whom the most important was Dai Li. It was intended to set an example of selfless and ascetic dedication to national service. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Read the speech below (click on the eye) which Jiang made in 1934 to introduce the new unifying ideology known as the New Life Movement. 1. What does Jiang see as the problem with China? 2. How does he think that this can be remedied? 3. Do you that this movement can be classed as a modernising/forward looking movement or a return to traditional ideas? Task Two ATL: Research skills Research further the New Life Movement. 1. What was Jiang trying to achieve with this movement? 2. From where did he get his inspiration? What different ideologies made up this movement? 3. What actions were taken to try to enforce it? 4. How successful was it? 5. What was the role of the organisation called the Blueshirts? 4. How successful was Jiang Jieshi's government in dealing with the problems facing China between 1927 and 1937? By SY - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60740934  'From its inception in 1928 to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Nationalist government at Nanking hardly enjoyed a day of peace from domestic squabbles and foreign aggression' Immanuel Hsü The Rise of Modern China, pg 540, 4th Ed When assessing the achievements of the GMD in this period, it has to be taken into account that there were substantial limitations upon what it could do. Warlordism in fact continued; despite the Northern Expedition many warlords remained outside effective control which meant threats to the authority of the GMD; it also affected their income because a good proportion, and in some cases all, of provincial taxes were kept in the provinces. This lack of money limited the GMD's capacity for reform. The threat from the CCP remained and the Japanese threat continued to grow; this dual threat was a distraction from dealing with domestic problems and it also meant that a high proportion of GMD resources had to go to the armed forces; it also meant the military element remained predominant in the GMD. Task One ATL: Thinking skills 1. What, according to this speech by Jiang Jieshi, are the problems holding back democracy and economic reconstruction in China? 2. With reference to origin, purpose and content how valuable is this source for understanding the aims of Jiang with regard to China? For many centuries Chinese society has been free of class distinctions such as are found even in advanced democracies. At the core of our political thought is our traditional maxim: 'The people form the foundation of the country.' We Chinese are instinctively democratic, and Dr Sun's objective of universal suffrage evokes from all Chinese a ready and unhesitating response. But the processes and forms by which the will of the people is made manifest, and the complex machinery of modern democratic government cannot, I know to my cost, be created overnight, especially under the constant menace and attack of Japanese militarism.. The absence of a strong central government capable of directing economic development, the bondage of unequal treaties trying to keep China a semi-colony for others, and above all, the jealous machinations of Japan, all these greatly retarded the economic reconstruction to which the National Revolution of China is dedicated. A speech by Jiang Jieshi, 17 November 1942 Task Two ATL: Research and thinking skills Divide into three groups. Each group should investigate one of the threats faced by Jiang (Warlords, CCP and Japan) under the following questions: What was the nature of the threat? How did it threaten the unity of China? How did Jiang tackle the threat? How effective were his actions? What was the situation by 1938? How did the threat limit Jiang's authority in this period? Each group should prepare a PPT presentation to the rest of the class to address these questions. Note that this overlaps with the next two sections to this topic: 3. Rise of Communism in China (ATL) and 4. China at war 1931 to 1949 (ATL) Jiang's government did have some real successes but China remained a country of appalling poverty with many problems, and the threats that have been discussed above increasingly diverted resources away from reforms. Here are some key points regarding developments in this decade: The government established an effective banking system with four national banks. For the first time foreign exchanges were controlled by government banks. The currency was reformed; inflation was not a significant problem in 1937. The GMD obtained control over China's tariffs; by May 1929 the major foreign powers had recognised China's tariff autonomy. Three thousand miles of railway were built; steamer transport was expanded on the rivers and along the coast. However, half of the railway mileage had been built in Manchuria which was under Japanese control. The first airlines started up and 15,000 miles of roads had been built by 1936; this created work and investment and helped to integrate regions. However conscripts were used to make the roads, and peasants were often not allowed to use them because they had been built for the military. In cities like Shanghai, there were the beginnings of a consumer society; cinemas, shopping malls and electric power became more common. For revenue, the government relied on customs revenue, the salt tax and commodity taxes but this was not enough and the government had to obtain 20 - 25% of its money by borrowing. The middle class who lent the government money did well from this. Taxation was regressive. The poor paid the most. Income tax was not introduced until 1936 and was then ineffective. Because much of the government expenditure went to payment of debts and military costs this limited the amount available for productive investment. The government did little to help the peasants. It levied high taxes. A land law of 1930 stated that rents should be limited to 37 and a half percent of the harvest but this was not enforced. Local administrators were often tyrannical or corrupt and many peasants lived in dire poverty. The global depression brought disaster to many peasants who relied on cash crops. The GMD failed to build mass support in the countryside and lacked control over the countryside. The historian John Roberts writes that 'the commitment of the Guomindang to a transformation of the countryside is suspect'. (A History of China). The government encouraged industrial development and there was some progress especially in new industries such as electricity and also in old industries such as coal where growth was at 7%, but this affected only a tiny proportion of China's population  as it was based in the treaty ports and in Manchuria. Foreigners were still very involved with industrial development. The education system was reorganised; secondary education increased considerably and in 1935 the government launched a crash programme of primary education. But there were still only 3,000 secondary schools serving half a million out of a population of 500 million. In 1932, only 15% of students enrolled in primary schools were girls. Education in the countryside was neglected. The number of foreign concessions was reduced from 33 to 13 through negotiation. Task Three ATL: Thinking skills In pairs, consider the list of the reforms above carried about by Jiang's government. (You may want to research these further) 1. Group the government reforms/actions under the following headings: Financial reforms Developments in communications and industry Education reforms Anti-Imperialism reforms Rural development Urban development 1. Highlight which reforms can be seen as successful and which a failure 2. Overall, how successful do you consider Jiang's government to have been in this decade (also bear in mind the problems highlighted above) There is debate among historians as to the extent of progress that took place in this decade. In the 1970s, many assessments of the Nanjing Decade, such as that by James Sheridan, were generally negative. More recently, however, this assessment has been challenged by historians such as Richard E Bedeski who have stressed the creation of new state institutions and China's renewed international image as significant developments. Task Four ATL: Thinking Skills In pairs, read these assessments of the Nanjing Decade. Identify the positive and negative points being made by each historian. Source A 'On balance, at the end of its first decade the National government appeared stronger than it really was. On the surface, it looked as though it were forging a new order out of chaos...Yet beneath the veneer of progress lay the serious fundamental problems of social and economic injustices and the chronic ill of deficit spending....' Immanuel Hsü The Rise of Modern China, pg 573, 4th Ed. Source B '..there was in almost every aspect of Chinese life a slow but certain movement until war broke out in 1937....Bureaucratic inertia, arbitrary imposition of taxes, indifference of poverty, nepotism, disruptive unpredictable corruption...all these evils were beginning to give way. Many branches of the public service were by 1937 capable of providing competent, honest and just administration...The whole vast, unwieldy bureaucratic mass was beginning to move'. Jack Grey, Rebellions and Revolutions, OUP, 1990, pg 247 Source C Not only did the [GMD] prove unable to liquidate the vestiges of independent military power in the provinces, but in political, economic, and intellectual terms as well, the Kuomintang (Guomindang) failed to create the new unity that the nation so desperately required.....Some growth in the modern sector of the economy did occur and it did contribute slightly to territorial integration, but the traditional rural economy continued unchanged and Chinese society remained divided between a vast traditionalistic peasantry and a small Westernized urban elite, itself fragmented by philosophical and political difference'. James E. Sheridan, China in Disintegration, Free Press, 1977, pg 220 Source D The Republican years are seen by researchers increasingly as part of a continuous transition during which China modified its traditional society and adapted to new roles in world affairs - sometimes with considerable success. Richard Louis Edmonds, Reappraising Republican China, OUP, 1999 Task Five ATL: Thinking and communication skills Using the information above, discuss in pairs or small groups the following questions. How far did did Jiang Jieshi's government succeed in achieving the aims of Sun Yixian's principles? (Nationalism, Democracy and People's Livelihood - see the top of this page for a discussion of what these meant) How far did Jiang Jieshi's government become a totalitarian, one party state? (For this question consider the extent to which the government had control over political life, thought, social life, economy) Task Six ATL: Thinking skills Select which of the following you think best describes the Nanjing decade. Make sure you can justify your decision. a. Jiang Jieshi tried to fulfill the Three People's Principles in this period and had some success in doing so. b. Jiang Jieshi did not really attempt to carry out the Three People's Principles. Although some significant reforms were passed, they were very limited in scope and the fundamental economic, social and political problems of China were not tackled. c. Jiang Jieshi's government was increasingly inefficient and corrupt and managed few significant achievements in this period. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had its origins in the turbulent decade of the 1920s. This section looks at its ideology and its conflict with the other major political force in China - the Guomindang (GMD). This conflict was to lead to a civil war which lasted from 1927 through to 1949 when the Communist Party emerged victorious. This topic overlaps with the Paper 2 topic Causes and Effects of 20th Century War: 1. Chinese Civil War: Causes (ATL) and 2. Chinese Civil War: Practices (ATL). Guiding questions: What was the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)? Why did the CCP join the nationalist Guomindang Party in the ‘First United Front’? Why did Jiang turn against the CCP leading to the Shanghai massacre? How did the CCP respond to the ‘White Terror'? What was the significance of the Long March? Why did Mao emerge as leader of the CCP in 1935? What was Mao’s ideology? 1. What was the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)? A meeting between Chen Duxiu and Comintern Agent Voitinsky Starter In pairs, review the key ideas of Marx, specifically his theory of dialectical materialism. How appropriate was Marxist ideology for China at this time? Also make sure you understand the role of the Soviet Comintern as this was to play a major role in the early years of the CCP. The Chinese Communist Party [CCP] was established in 1921 in Shanghai. The party was tiny at this stage and had just 432 members by 1923. The CCP was not only inspired by the successful Bolshevik revolution in Russian in October 1917 but there was also direct involvement from Soviet Comintern agents who arrived in China in 1920. Together with Chinese Marxists, Comintern Agent Voitinsky drew the party together. Therefore, the CCP was initially under the influence of the Soviet Communist Party and indeed was structured in line with the Soviet Communist Party (CPSU). It was run by a party elite – the Central Committee - and this elite had control over party members. Like the CPSU it followed the principle of ‘democratic centralism’ whereby the leaders discussed policy but once a decision had been made all had to abide by it. No opposition to party decisions was allowed. Membership was controlled by the Party Secretary and was organized through elected national, provincial and local officials. The rank and file members had to execute party policies set down by the leadership. Therefore, the leadership rather than the party made policy. Party congresses were held frequently to ensure unity of purpose and to motivate members. This structure meant that the leader of the party had extensive power. However, the May Fourth Movement was also significant in the establishment of the CCP as several of its founding members had been involved in the May Fourth demonstrations. Two Chinese professors, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao were the leading members of the party. Chen Duxiu became the first leader of the CCP and he supported the Comintern’s ideas for the party. Li Dazhao, however, was more independent in his thinking. He was more of a nationalist communist who wanted to adapt Marxist ideas to the reality of conditions in China; he thus had different solutions to China's problems to those of the Comintern. From the beginning there were thus two ideological factions within the CCP. These factions would vie for control of the party for over a decade. Task One ATL: Thinking skills In pairs read through the chart below and discuss the differences between the orthodox and national communist factions. What would be the benefits of supporting the orthodox group? What advantages would there be in supporting the national communists? Mao Zedong’s ideology is covered below under Question Seven 2. Why did the CCP join the nationalist Guomindang Party (GMD) in the ‘First United Front’? In 1923, the CCP and the GMD parties entered into an alliance, called the ‘First United Front’ in order to defeat the warlords and foreign influence in China. Task One ATL: Thinking and communication skills In pairs read through the information below (click on the eye) and draft a brief report, as new members of the Chinese Communist Party, explaining why the party should join with the Guomindang to form the First United Front. Note that there is an alternative task for looking at China in 1922 under guiding question 3 on this page: 1. Chinese Civil War: Causes (ATL) 3. Why did Jiang turn against the CCP leading to the Shanghai massacre? GMD troops rounding up CCP in Shanghai Jiang successfully led the First United Front on the Northern Expedition [1926-27]. Joint CCP-GMD forces aimed to defeat the warlords and create a strong central government. Although Jiang was ultimately successful he did not militarily ‘defeat’ all of the warlords, but instead brokered deals with several of them to join his forces. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Watch the first 9 minutes of the following video and answer these questions: 1. What successes did the Northern Expedition have? 2. What were the actions of the Communists on this Expedition? 3. Why was there hostility to the Communists by the Nationalists? 4. What actions had the Communists taken in Shanghai to support the Northern Expedition? 5. How did the GMD go about the purge of Communists and their supporters in Shanghai? Task Two ATL: Thinking and communication skills Write a speech by Jiang Jieshi explaining the reasons for his decision to massacre the Communists and destroy the First United Front. You can click on the eye for more information to help you with this task. 4. How did the CCP respond to the ‘White Terror'? After the Shanghai massacre the CCP was under attack all over China. The Central Executive Committee declared Jiang a ‘counter revolutionary’. Task One ATL: Thinking and Self-management skills Read the information below on the fate of the CCP after the Shanghai massacre 1. What actions did the GMD take against the CCP?  2. Why was the CCP unable to successfully resist or counter-attack Jiang’s assault on the party during this period? On 19th May 1927 warlord troops massacred union members and communists in Changsha and began attacks on peasant associations throughout the rest of Hunan. This led to the collapse in CCP membership in Hunan from 20,000 to 5,000. However, the Comintern told the CCP to ignore these attacks and maintain the United Front. In June the CCP was ordered to set up an army of 50,000 workers led by 20,000 communists. Wang Jingwei had realized that this was a move for the CCP to seize power. In mid-June Wang removed the communists in his Wuhan government. In August the Comintern blamed Chen Duxiu for the failure of the United Front and removed him as leader of the CCP. Qu Qiubai became the effective leader. Qu Qiubai then launched a series of assaults intending to inspire a workers uprising. The Comintern were hesitant about the policy and cautioned not to proceed unless sure of success. All of these attacks were costly defeats. The CCP’s attempt to gain power between 1926 and 1927 had been a disaster. The CCP was not strong enough at this time, it had launched its bid for power too early and the had been crushed by the ‘right wing’ of the GMD. In addition, the National communist bloc had been weakened. Orthodox communists had demonstrated loyalty to Moscow but were unable to attain power in China. As Stalin eliminated his rivals and assumed control in the USSR the old Comintern leadership of the CCP was purged and replaced by those obedient to Stalin. Chen Duxiu was replaced by Li Lisan. The CCP was in a total state of disorder. Its urban power base and role in the coalition united front was destroyed. Li Dazhao had been captured and executed in Beijing. The leaders that had survived Jiang’s assault had been forced underground. The CCP’s working relationship with the ‘left wing’ of the GMD also ended as Stalin’s policy was for communist parties internationally to destroy socialists in their countries. This policy further undermined the CCP and strengthened Jiang’s hand against them. The only safe havens for the CCP in China after the Shanghai massacre were the rural bases established by Mao and other nationalist communists in remote areas. These were areas which could not be reached by the warlords or Jiang’s forces. However, the CCP central committee viewed these areas as ‘deviant’. Nevertheless, rural bases were attracting important survivors from the CCP, including the military commander Zhu De, who joined Mao in Jiangxi. Another CCP military leader, Gao Gang developed a base in Shaanxi. The CCP attempted to strike back during 1927 in August in Nanchang and in December in Guangzhou but were crushed by GMD forces. After the execution of Li Dazhao, Mao became the senior national communist figure in the CCP. Mao did respond to the orders of the Comintern and launched the Autumn Harvest Uprising in September 1927 in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. This failed, but as this rising - a rural activity - was not in line with the policies of the CCP central committee, Mao was removed from the body. In October after the failure of the Autumn Harvest rising, Mao led the remainder of his forces into the Jianggangshan mountains on the Hunan-Jiangxi border. He was joined by other communist leaders including Zhu De in April 1928. Mao and Zhu formed a political alliance [this lasted over 40 years]. They were surrounded by hostile forces but were able to hold on to their territory and protect their forces. In 1928, the Chinese Communist Congress had to be held in Moscow. At this meeting Stalin approved the development of rural soviets in China as a means to rebuild the CCP and relaunch its bid for control. Between April 1928 and January 1929 three GMD attacks were launched against the Jianggang base. The third assault forced Mao and Zhu to cross Jiangxi province to Ruijin on the border with Fujian province. This gave them access to a larger and wealthier area. Here they established the Jiangxi Soviet and begun to rebuild. By 1930 they had around 70,000 troops in the ‘Fourth Red Army’. Task Two ATL: Thinking Skills Watch the following video (3rd section of PBS video on China) from 3 minutes in and answer these questions: 1. Why was communism attractive to peasants in South China? 2. What actions did the communists take with regard to the landlords? 3. What actions did Jiang Jieshi take? What problems did he face? Although Stalin had recognised the National Communists’ rural tactics, these remained unpopular with the CCP's leadership, specifically Li Lisan. Li wanted to pursue the Soviet model for revolution. Li believed that the CCP should target cities and give more power to its military forces. The CCP followed Li’s policies but this led to more failures, for example the attempt to take Changsha in 1929. Nevertheless, Li continued to order more urban assaults and ordered the CCP to organize uprisings of workers in the cities, and peasants in the countryside. Li planned to use the CCP’s red army, and the Soviet army to attack the nationalist government from Manchuria and Mongolia. Mao and the national communist faction in the rural soviet bases increasingly criticized Li’s leadership. Pressure on Li grew as his policies failed. In 1930, 28 Chinese students who had been studying in Moscow returned to China with an order from Stalin to oust Li. This group was known as the '28 Bolsheviks' and they purged the Central Committee in Shanghai by informing the GMD of where they met. Stalin recalled Li to Moscow. The 28 Bolsheviks then became the Central Committee. This meant that disagreement and tension continued between the orthodox and national communist factions. Task Three ATL: Thinking and self-management skills In pairs review the material on the differences in ideas and policy between the national and orthodox Chinese communists. Copy out or print off the chart below and add information to highlight areas of potential disagreement between Li Lisan and Mao Zedong. Li versus Mao table Jiang launched his first ‘encirclement’ campaign against the CCP in the rural soviets in 1930. There would be five campaigns on the communist base in increasingly intense extermination operations. Jiang’s focus was in the south at Jiangxi and Hunan. When the situation deteriorated for the CCP in Shanghai, the 28 Bolsheviks fled to Mao’s Soviet in Jiangxi. There ensued a power struggle. The orthodox leaders, Bo Gu and Wang Ming challenged Mao’s leadership. By 1933 the entire leadership of the CCP had taken refuge in Jiangxi. Gradually the orthodox group imposed their control. By 1934 Mao had lost authority and he was arrested. The Comintern sent a German communist - Otto Braun - to help direct the CCP in the rural Soviets and he took the Chinese name Li De. Li De, Wang Ming and Bo Gu led the CCP in to a catastrophic defeat which nearly led to the annihilation of the party and Jiang’s final victory. Task Four ATL: Thinking Skills Create a second table or mind map to show the differences between Mao's ideas on how to resist the GMD and the encirclement campaigns and those of the new leadership in Jiangxi. Divide your information under the headings: military, social and economic. Click on the eye below to see the key differences. Task Five ATL: Thinking skills Using the information above and the diagram below discuss in pairs the reasons for the CCP’s survival in the first campaigns. What conclusions could the CCP draw regarding military strategy against the GMD? 5. What was the significance of the Long March? http://vanguard-cpaml.blogspot.com/2016/11/80th-anniversary-of-chinese-red-armys.html The Long March has become a key event in Chinese Communist Party history. Indeed, it was one of the most extraordinary feats in modern history. Although essentially the CCP was embarking on a massive retreat it is now seen as a great victory and the cornerstone for the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Almost 90,000 communists broke through the encirclement at Jiangxi in late 1934 and marched 9,600 km across the most inhospitable areas and terrain. The national communists had been forced to go along with the 28 Bolsheviks to avoid same fate as Mao. Orthodox communists led the flight out of Jiangxi in October 1934 and had no clear plan. They incurred heavy losses to GMD who were in pursuit. By January 1935 the CCP had lost 60% of their forces. Task One ATL: Research skills 1. In small groups research the CCP’s ‘Long March’. Include the following in your research: Key battles, confrontations and events The role of CCP’s key leaders including: Zhang Guotao, Zhu De and Mao Zedong The Zunyi Conference The establishment of the base in Yan’an. 2. As part of your research, investigate the views of historians regarding the Long March. Try to find a variety of views including those of Jung Cheng and Jon Halliday (Mao: The Unknown Story) who claim that the heroism of the Long March is just a myth. 3. Create a documentary based on your research to highlight the events and the impact of this key event. (You may want to watch the video under the next guiding question first) Task Two ATL: Thinking skills Read the following interview with Zhu De via a translator for a US newspaper. 1937. 1. What factors does Zhu De identify as important in the CCP’s survival? 2. With reference to the origin, purpose and content, evaluate the value and limitations of this source for historians studying the Chinese civil war. ‘Guomindang armies all fought by the usual Japanese military tactics, advancing in one column with front and flank guards… But we split up into small, swift combat units which got in their rear and on their flanks and attacked, cutting them into segments. There’s nothing secret about such tactics… and the militarists later tried to use them against us. They failed because such guerrilla warfare requires not only a thorough knowledge of the terrain of the battle area but also the support of the common people’ 6. Why did Mao emerge as leader of the CCP in 1935? Liu Shaoqi, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Zhu De in northern Shaanxi in 1936 The CCP held an emergency meeting at Zunyi in January 1935 to assess its situation which was fairly desperate. The leadership of Bo Gu, Li De and Wang Ming was blamed for the disasters. Mao and his policies were rehabilitated. Mao emerged as the new leader. According to historian Immanuel Hsu the Zunyi conference was: ‘a landmark… in Mao’s rise to the pinnacle of power’. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Watch the following video from 5 minutes in. What factors led to Mao's takeover as leader at the Zunyi Conference? According to the survivors of the Long March, what problems did the Communists face on the journey? At the Zunyi Conference Mao proposed that the CCP should: head north to the soviets of Shaanxi where the CCP could establish a secure base in safety from GMD attack. There it could rebuild the party. It could also launch attacks on the Japanese focus on the ‘mass line’ philosophy of working with the peasants and establish a broad base of support deploy guerrilla warfare tactics and avoid positional conventional warfare. Li De and Bo Gu left for Moscow; however Wang Ming changed his policies and admitted his mistakes and became part of the new leadership. Mao’s policies were supported by most of the military commanders at the Zunyi conference. Peng Dehuai and Zhu De were important in Mao securing the leadership of the party. Zhou Enlai also admitted to mistakes and supported Mao. As a consequence of the Zunyi conference Mao was able to form the close body of personnel that would form the CCP leadership until his death in 1976. Deng Xiaoping became party secretary. The survivors of the Long March reached Yan'an in October 1935. Of those that had set off, only around 15% had survived from Jiangxi. Mao still faced challenges:  Other rural soviets had also fled north but under different leaders. There were ‘many’ long marches with different leaders who were known for their individual policies in their own soviets. Submitting to Mao’s leadership was difficult. He Long and Goa Gang [who had been in control of Yan'an before Mao arrived] accepted his authority however Zhang Guotao refused. Zhang was an orthodox communist and wanted to base his forces closer to the USSR. Zhang split from the CCP in Yan'an and pursued his own policies. But Zhang’s soviet collapsed and he later joined the GMD. The Comintern adopted a new policy in 1935, the Popular Front policy. This directed Communist Parties to work together with other socialist parties and anti-fascist parties to contain the threat posed by fascist and militarist Nazi Germany, Italy and Japan. Mao had long promoted national resistance to Japan. Many Chinese were appalled at Jiang’s policy of appeasement and conceding territory. The treaty of He-Umezu in 1935 was an example of this where Jiang abandoned northern China to the Japanese. In 1936 the Comintern instructed Mao to form a second United Front with the GMD – this time to fight the Japanese. Task Two ATL: Thinking and self-management skills In pairs, review the information, activities and research material you have covered in this unit. Create an annotated infographic that outlines the key events and factors that led to Mao Zedong' leadership of the CCP. You can use the chart below as a guide. Mao's rise to power: summary grid 7. What was Mao’s ideology? Task One ATL: Thinking skills Mao promoted the role of the Chinese peasant in revolution. In pairs read the quote below from Immanuel Hsü. (Also refer back to your work on the Nanjing Decade) How significant is this point in explaining the ultimate success of the CCP in China? ‘The peasant had been exploited to the limit; only a revolution could give him relief. Yet all the GMD did was to pass a resolution in 1930 to reduce land rent to 37.5% of the main crops, and even this modest cap was never really put into practice. Dr Sun’s ideal of “land to the tiller” was never fulfilled.’ Task Two ATL: Research skills In small groups review the material on Mao’s ideas covered thus far, and read through the chart below. Discuss the specifics of Mao Zedong’s ideology. In your groups investigate Mao’s ideas in more depth and add detail and historians’ perspectives to your own copy of the chart (attached below) chart on Mao's ideas From 1931, China was subjected to an invasion by the Japanese; this conflict became part of the wider conflict of the Second World War from 1941. Although Jiang and Mao created a second United Front to defeat the Japanese, the struggle between the GMD and the CCP continued after 1945 until the victory of Mao in 1949. Guiding questions: 1. What was the significance of the Mukden Incident, 1931? 2. Why did the GMD and the CCP form the Second United Front in 1937 and what was its impact? 3. What were the key events of the Second Sino-Japanese War? 4. What was the impact of the Sino-Japanese War / Second World War in the Pacific on the CCP and GMD? 5. Why did civil war break out again in China in 1946? 6. What were the key campaigns, battles and events of the Chinese Civil War 1946-49? 7. What role did foreign intervention play in determining the outcome of the Chinese Civil War [1946-49]? 8. Why did the CCP win the Chinese Civil War, 1946 – 49? 9. What are the perspectives of historians regarding the factors that led to the CCP victory in the Chinese Civil War? 10. What was China's role in the Second World Two? Changing perceptions 1. What was the significance of the Mukden Incident, 1931? Starter Activity: In small groups research (or review) the extent of Japanese influence in Manchuria and the role of the Kwantung Army in the region up to 1931. Discuss also the potential reasons for Japanese interest in the territory. Click on the eye for extra information regarding the role of the Manchurian warlords and Jiang in dealing with the Japanese threat before 1931.  The crisis of the Mukden Incident was triggered by the Japanese government. In Tokyo, as the economic situation in Japan worsened, moves were made to limit the actions of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. In September 1931 a senior minister was sent to Manchuria to order the army to use ‘prudence and patience’ in dealing with any issues that might arise in the territory. Japanese officers had been covertly cabled in advance by a junior staff officer about the purpose of this visit and decided to act before the ‘order’ from Tokyo was officially given. On the night of September 18, 1931, part of the railway near Mukden was blown up. This was close to the largest Chinese barracks on the railway. After the ‘Mukden Incident’ the senior Japanese staff officer ordered a full scale attack on the barracks and the seizure of the walled city of Mukden. However, the Japanese cabinet in Tokyo ordered restraint and China and the US requested that the League of Nations call for an end to fighting. The Japanese commander in Korea then independently ordered his troops to move into south Manchuria. Jiang, facing his own political crisis, could not take on a large conflict with Japan. Jiang ordered Zhang to withdraw his troops south of the Great Wall. By the end of 1931 Japan had total control over the whole of Manchuria. The Japanese had been meeting with the brother of the last emperor of China, Puyi. The Japanese maintained to Puyi’s representatives that it had acted specifically against Zhang and meant to improve the lives of the Chinese population in Manchuria and create an independent state. In November 1931 Puyi, convinced by the arguments presented by the Japanese and probably hoping to resurrect his family’s dynasty, secretly returned to Manchuria. In March 1932, Puyi accepted the title ‘chief executive’ of the state of Manchukuo. Task One ATL: Thinking Skills Watch the following video, Japan Road to War, from 14 minutes to 19 minutes 30 seconds for an overview of the crisis Task Two  ATL: Thinking and communication skills Get into groups of four. Each member of your group will take on one of the following roles: A local GMD Chinese journalist A Japanese journalist affiliated with the Kwantung army A journalist affiliated with the League of Nations A journalist affiliated with western business groups in China Draft a report that explains and analyses the key events of the Manchurian crisis from your character’s perspective. Present your report to the rest of the group. Task Three ATL: Thinking skills In pairs read through the response of China, Japan and the international community to the Manchurian crisis. 1. Discuss the reasons for the League of Nations’ ineffective response 2. Discuss the political and economic impact of the creation of Manchukuo and the Tanggu Truce / Treaty on China. The League’s response  The League was slow to act, but did respond and in November 1931 ordered a commission to investigate events in Manchuria headed by Lord Lytton. The Lytton Report found that it did not recognize Japanese sovereignty of the territory. The US response The US attempted to influence other states to take a firm position. Secretary of State Henry Stimson declared that the US would not recognize the new state. The British response The British decided not to pursue the US policy of ‘non-recognition’ until the situation was better understood. The Chinese response The Manchurian crisis whipped up widespread anti-Japanese and anti-foreign sentiment in China. The boycotts escalated and in Shanghai the local council had to declare a state of emergency in January 1932 and it deployed troops to the streets. Japanese marines who had been ordered to secure Japan’s perimeters exchanged fire with GMD forces. These clashes escalated to a full scale attack on Shanghai’s Chinese defenders. The heroic fight back of the Chinese led to international sympathy and respect. The Japanese bombings also killed civilians which caused international outrage. The claims of the Japanese government that it was bringing ‘order’ to China seemed increasingly hollow as Japan faced political assassinations and upheavals at home. The Japanese response  The Japanese set up a ceasefire in Shanghai in May 1932. This agreement forced the GMD to recognize a ‘neutral’ zone around the city. Jiang did not trust his own commander of the Nineteenth Route Army and moved him away from the city. In August the Japanese government’s approach hardened, and it recognized Puyi’s Manchukuo. The Lytton Report, in January 1933, found that it would not recognize the loss of Chinese sovereignty of Manchuria. Japan then ordered its troops into Jehol claiming that ‘issues’ there were an internal problem of Manchukuo. By April 1933, the Japanese had conquered the province. In February the League of Nations debated the findings of the Lytton Report as fighting raged in Jehol. The Japanese delegation argued that it was intent on ‘helping’ China. The Japanese also warned that a failure to understand Japan’s position in Manchuria could lead to a ‘fateful’ alliance between the Chinese communists, left GMD and the USSR. Unanimously, League members backed the Lytton Report’s findings. This meant that the League rejected Japan’s contention that Manchukuo was a legitimate independent state. The Japanese then walked out of the League of Nations. In May 1933, as it could not consolidate its forces on the northern side of the Great Wall unless the south side was cleared of Chinese troops, the Kwantung Army moved its troops into Hebei province. Japanese troops then clashed and pushed back Chinese armies to the Bai River. Local generals and former warlords were bribed. The Japanese set up a radio station which broadcast fake orders via Chinese military frequencies to cause confusion and disarray. War planes were also flown low over Beijing to terrify the civilian population. These strategies led the demoralized and divided Chinese forces to sue for peace in May 1933. At Tanggu, under the guns of a Japanese warship, the Chinese negotiators signed a humiliating treaty, the Tanggu Truce. Northeastern Hebei would become a demilitarized zone Japanese forces would withdraw to the Great Wall Japan could fly scout planes over the territory to ensure there were no Chinese troop movements in the area A few weeks later the commander of the Kwantung Army informed Puyi that it had been agreed to restore him as emperor. At a ceremony in March 1934 Puyi’s accession was confirmed in his new capital Changchun. For more tasks on the international response and Japan's reaction to this go to 3. Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931 - 1941) (ATL) 2. Why did the GMD and the CCP form the Second United Front in 1937 and what was its impact? In December 1936 Jiang had flown to Xian, despite warnings that it was too dangerous for him to go. Jiang wanted to interview the generals of Zhang Xueliang’s army and test their loyalty to him. He also wanted to move to finally annihilate the communists. Jiang ordered trustworthy troops into Xian and brought in bomber aircraft to the territory to crush the CCP. However, this was to lead to a surprising event. Watch the following video up to 3 minutes 30 seconds: 1. Why can the Xian incident be considered so 'astonishing'? 2. Why was Jiang released? 3. What was the outcome of this incident?  The kidnapping was carried out by Zhang who was now determined to force Jiang to adopt an anti-Japanese stance and halt his assaults on the communists. Zhang and his supporters issued a telegram to all central and provincial government leaders, and the press, listing eight key demands that would be put to Jiang who they now held. Task Two ATL: Thinking Skills Read the 8 demands that were given to Jiang. What can we learn from these demands about the nature of Jiang's China?  Task Two ATL: Self-management skills Copy a chart out like the one below. Add details of the events and impact of the Xian Incident. You can click on the eye for more information on the response to the Xian Incident.  Task Three ATL: Thinking Skills Read the following extract from a text-book on the role of the Comintern in the formation of the Second United Front. 1. Using this source plus the information above, identify the ways in which the Comintern was able to influence the formation of the Second United Front. 2. According to this source, what factors allowed Mao and his ideas to finally defeat those of the Comintern? The Xian incident was important in the formation of the second United Front. However, in the end it was the Comintern's influence that sealed the alliance between the CCP and the GMD. Historians John K Fairbank and Immanuel Hsü argue Mao was reluctant to join another alliance with the GMD and did not want the PLA, known as the 8th Route Army during the Second United Front, to be under the command of GMD officers. However the Comintern and Wang Ming had renewed their influence between 1937 and 1938. Wang Ming argued for full cooperation with the GMD; he won the argument and Mao acquiesced to Stalin's orders. However, while the Comintern urged the CCP to focus on the war with Japan and to put on hold its own revolutionary activities, Mao wanted to pursue both; according to Hsu he had the following priorities: 70% expansion of the party; 20% fighting GMD; 10% fighting Japanese. Ultimately the Second United Front was never a strong agreement and this meant Wang’s position was weakened and Mao’s strengthened. Opponents of Mao’s position were further undermined by the policies of the Soviets, where neutrality pacts were signed firstly with Nazi Germany in 1939 and then with Japan in 1941. The GMD attacked the CCP’s New 4th Army in South Anhui in 1941 which finally ended the semblance of unity. The collapse of the Second United Front helped Mao to renew his grip on the party. Even though the Yan'an soviet was blockaded by GMD forces for most of the war with Japan, it was not directly attacked; this meant Mao could develop his ideas and the challenge from the orthodox communists began to wane. The Yan'an years were key to Mao’s final consolidations of control over the CCP. In Yan'an Mao encouraged not only the development of a broad based anti-Japanese but also an anti-GMD alliance. He was able to ally with wealthier peasants, the middle classes and some of the gentry. Mao did not pursue a class war in Yan'an. He also encouraged potential supporters of the GMD to focus on its weaknesses and failings. The policies implemented in this period towards land and business did not reveal Mao’s longer term plans. After 1940, Mao fostered a policy of ‘New Democracy’. This allowed for other parties to develop, for example, the New Democratic League [intellectuals who had fled GMD terror] was formed. This gave the people within the soviets free voting rights and a choice of parties. The ‘3:3:3 system’ was adopted for committees which permitted the CCP to only have one third of membership. CCP members were the leaders of all committees but the remaining two thirds had to be non-party leftists or liberals. Although this offered the appearance of some democracy it retained the real power for CCP. Indeed, all decisions had to be obeyed in line with the principle of ‘Democratic centralism’. Task Four  ATL: Thinking and self-management skills In pairs review the last unit you studied which covered Mao’s ideology. Discuss the extent to which Mao moderated his ideas in order to consolidate his control over the CCP and expand the communists support base. 3. What factors led to the victory of the CCP in 1949? For the next stage of this topic follow this link: 2. Chinese Civil War: Practices (ATL) where the following guiding questions are examined with ATL: 3. What were the key events of the Second Sino-Japanese War? 4. What was the impact of the Sino-Japanese War / Second World War in the Pacific on the CCP and GMD? 5. Why did civil war break out again in China in 1946? 6. What were the key campaigns, battles and events of the Chinese Civil War 1946-49? 7. What role did foreign intervention play in determining the outcome of the Chinese Civil War [1946-49]? 8. Why did the CCP win the Chinese Civil War, 1946 – 49? 9. What are the perspectives of historians regarding the factors that led to the CCP victory in the Chinese Civil War? 5. What was the role of the CCP in the Second World War? Changing perceptions Task One ATL: Thinking skills Watch the following documentary which offers a good overview of the role China played in the allied victory in the Second World War. It includes details of turning point battles and eye-witness accounts of China’s war with Japan 1937-45. Click on the eye for timings  You wil have seen Rana Mitter ( Professor of the history and politics of modern China at Oxford University) in the video above. In his new book China's Good War: How World War II is shaping a new nationalism he looks at China's new focus on it's role in the Second World War: 'For most of its history, the People’s Republic of China limited public discussion of the war against Japan. It was an experience of victimization – and one that saw Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek fighting for the same goals. But now, as China grows more powerful, the meaning of the war is changing. Rana Mitter argues that China’s reassessment of the World War II ears is central to its newfound confidence abroad and to mounting nationalism at home.' (Take from the cover of China's Good War') Task Two ATL – Thinking skills In pairs discuss the change in China’s relationship with the West after Mao and the CCP came to power in 1949. You can begin your discussion with the key points outlined in the chart below. Contrast of relations between China and West: China during WW2 and Mao’s China  Task Three ATL – Thinking and communication skills Listen to the following podcast on China and the global order from 28:40 minutes and answer the following questions: Start the Week - China and the global order - BBC Sounds (BBC) Andrew Marr with John Micklethwait, Katya Adler and Rana Mitter. Questions:  1. According to Rana Mitter the Chinese government used the term ‘People’s War’ with regards to beating the Covid-19 virus which was exactly the same term used by which Chinese leader about fighting the Japanese in the 1930s and 1940s? 2. Which ally fought the Axis powers for the longest period during the Second World War? 3. How many Chinese were killed during the war? 4. How many Chinese became refugees during the conflict? 5. The Chinese managed to hold down how many Japanese troops before the West entered the war in the Pacific 4 ½ years later? 6. Which Chinese city was bombed in a longer campaign of aerial assaults than the British ‘Blitz’ during the Second World War? 7. Which country was the first signatory of the UN Charter? 8. When did China sign the Universal Declaration on Human Rights? This section examines the political, social and economic impact of Japanese rule on Korea between 1910 and 1945. It also covers the events post Second World War which led to the permanent division of Korea by 1948. Not only is the impact of these events still evident on the Korean peninsula today, many of the issues are still a source of controversy between Japan and Korea. Guiding Questions Why did Japan annex Korea in 1910? What was the impact of the Japanese annexation in 1910? What was the impact of the Sino-Japanese war and the Second World War on Korea? Why did Korea end up as a divided country after 1945? 1. Why did Japan annex Korea in 1910? Starter: Looking at this map what is the significance of Korea's position? From whom could they face threats? Why do you think that Japan called Korea 'a dagger pointing at the heart of Japan'? In order to understand why Japan annexed Korea in 1910, it is necessary to understand Japan's development from the time that it was forced to open up for trade by the Americans in 1855.. It is also necessary to understand the weakness of China at the end of the 19th Century. (You may have covered this under Topic 9). Japanese nationalism began in the second half of the 19th century when Japan had its first contact with the West. Up until this time, it had been isolated from the outside world - a policy maintained by Japan's rulers, the Shogun. However, in 1853 Commodore Perry, an American naval officer, arrived on the shores of Japan with several US steam ships demanding that Japan open up for trade. Task One ATL: Research skills In groups research the following to give you an understanding of Japan's motives in annexing Korea in 1910. For each heading identify how the event contributed to growing nationalism and militarism within Japan and thus a desire to gain other territories, and also how/if Korea was involved: The Meiji Restoration and Japan's modernising reforms The first Sino-Japanese War of 1884 - 85 The Russo-Japanese War of 1905 One group should also look at internal Korean politics 1875 to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 as it was the internal situation that helped facilitate Japanese dominance. A useful starting point for this is to watch the video The Meiji Revolution: see links and timings on this page: 9. Japan 1912 to 1990: Videos The whole of this period, including Korean politics, is also covered under Topic 9: Topic 09: Early modernization and imperial decline in East Asia (1860–1912) Task Two ATL: Thinking skills What, according to the historian James L. McClain, was the reason that Japan focused its attention on Korea? Fear and apprehension of the West made a fertile seedbed for the growth of Japanese imperialism... Acutely aware of their country's weakness vis-à-vis the Great Powers, Japan's government reacted defensively and justified its acquisition of empire as a countermeasure designed to preserve its national independence in a volatile and potentially lethal international environment. That desperate sense of vulnerability was the primary reason Japanese policy makers riveted their attention on Korea, the infamous dagger they needed to keep out of the hands of opportunistic Western powers. James L. McClain, Japan, A Modern History, 2002, W.W. Norton, pg 312 - 314 2. What was the impact of Japanese annexation in 1910? 'The colonial experience was intense and bitter and shaped postwar Korea deeply' Bruce Cumings, Korea's place in the Sun, 2005 Korea was formally annexed by Japan on 22 August 1910. Article 1 of the Japan-Korea Treaty stipulated that: His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan. Starter: Watch this video for the first 5 minutes to get an overview of Japanese rule after 1910: Annexation meant that Japan was in control of all aspects of Korean life and this had far reaching effects for the Koreans. Initially rule was very repressive but then in 1920, following criticism of its laws (including the March 1 protests), Japan eased some of its restrictive policies with a policy of 'cultural rule' which involved a more 'enlightened' approach. However, by the 1930s with the Japanese government itself increasingly under the control of the military, those who advocated more lenient policies were removed or assassinated. Political effects The royal family and elites in Korean ruling circles were paid off with money and titles while the highest posts in the central state and in the provinces were filled by Koreans who were loyal to Japan, many of whom had spent time in Japan The first decade saw a heavy handed 'military policy'. where police had a large role throughout the country collecting taxes and enforcing laws. They were authorised to conduct 'administrative trials' that were not subject to higher judicial review; this meant they could also hand out fines, jail terms and punishments such as whipping with bamboo canes. Power was centralised with the Governor-General exercising authoritative and coercive control. Central bureaucratic power extended into the counties and villages. Every Governor General was a military man and Japan stationed a big army in Korea to help ensure control. Opposition to colonial control did exist but was treated harshly and never succeeded in disrupting Japanese rule. This was also because it lacked coherence. Some nationalists wanted closer ties with the West while others wanted a return to Korean traditional values. Others followed communist ideals following the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917. Economic effects '...economically there was significant, if unevenly distributed growth. Agricultural output rose substantially in the 1920s, and a hothouse industrialisation took root in the 1930s. Growth rates in the Korean economy often outstripped those in Japan itself.' Bruce Cumings, Korea's place in the Sun, 2005, pg 148) 'Certainly, investments in the industrial infrastructure made during the 1930s proved advantageous to Korea's long-range prospects for economic development, but just as surely, Japanese policies shortchanged Koreans in the short run.' James L. McClain, A Modern History: Japan, 2002, pg 463 A massive land survey was carried out which overturned nearly forty thousand undocumented claims to land ownership; this had a devastating effect on many rural Korean families who now had to become tenant farmers paying rent on land that they had previously owned Newly available land was taken over by Japanese-owned agricultural co-operatives By 1939 most large-scale industries were owned by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea Most Korean companies could not compete with Japanese firms, many of which enjoyed tax exemptions and official guarantees against losses. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25% higher than their Japanese counterparts Although many Koreans found employment in the new Japanese factories, most held low-paid menial jobs. Even when Korean workers did the same job as a Japanese worker, they received considerably less pay With the new Governor-General (General Ugaki Kazushige) in 1931 which coincided with the Manchurian Incident, Japan moved to build up the Korean economy as part of the empire-wide programme of economic self-sufficiency and preparation for war. More railroads, roads, ports and manufacturing industries, which focused on areas such as chemical plants and munitions, were built Social effects In 1907 the Japanese government passed the Newspaper Law which prevented the publication of local papers. In 1920, responding to criticisms of its harsh regime, these laws were relaxed as Japan started its 'cultural policy' (see above) The number of schools was increased; about half of all children of school age were in attendance at elementary schools by 1940 With the arrival of General Ugaki, a policy of assimilation started which was continued by his successor, General Minami Jirō. Concerned with getting the Korean population to fully support the industrialisation programme and also to enure their loyalty, an attempt was made to extinguish a separate Korean cultural identity and to embed Japanese values as indicated by the slogan 'Korea and the Homeland,  Together as One'. Patriotic groups were established to promote support for the war and these increased surveillance and control over the population. From 1935, Koreans had to recite an oath of loyalty to the emperor and worship at Shinto shrines. Children were also forbidden from speaking Korean at school. In 1939, Koreans had to abandon their birth names and adopt Japanese-style surnames and given names. Those who refused to do so were not allowed to enroll at school and could not get food rations. And for those whose jobs depended on the colonial system, taking a Japanese name was unavoidable. Task One ATL: Thinking skills Read the source below which comes from F. A. McKenzie, a Canadian journalist who lived in Korea during the colonisation period, and then answer the questions that follow. This extract comes from McKenzie's book 'Korea's Fight for Freedom' published in 1920. It became more and more clear, however, that the aim of the Japanese was nothing else than the entire absorption of the country and the destruction of every trace of Korean nationality. One of the most influential Japanese in Korea put this quite frankly to me. 'You must understand that I am not expressing official views,' he told me. 'But if you ask me as an individual what is to be the outcome of our policy I can only see one end... The Korean people will be absorbed in the Japanese. They will talk our language, live our life, and be an integral part of us...'.....The Japanese believes that the Korean is on a wholly different level to himself, a coward, a weakling...He despises him, and treats him accordingly'. 1. What, according to McKenzie, were the aims of the Japanese in Korea? 2. With reference to origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of this source for the historian studying colonial rule in Korea after 1910. Task Two ATL: Thinking skills Use the information from the video and notes above to draw up a mind map or other infographic to show the impact of Japanese rule on Korea. This History site will also be a useful resource in this task: How Japan Took Control of Korea | HISTORY (HISTORY) Between 1910 and 1945, Japan worked to wipe out Korean culture, language and history. Task Three ATL: Research skills 1. Research further the March 1 movement (1919) which was a protest against Japanese rule in Korea (also covered in the video above). 2. Divide the class into three groups. Group one should write a news report on this uprising for a Western newspaper. Group two should write a news report on this uprising for a Japanese newspaper Group three should write a report for a clandestine Korean paper from the point of view of the opposition within Korea Task Four ATL: Thinking skills Read the following source which is an announcement made by the office of Governor-General Minami in 1941. 'The benevolence of our Imperial Family has reached throughout Korea and bestowed upon the Korean people a peaceful life. Why is it that the government of Korea has prospered so in only thirty years? It is because each succeeding governor general devoted himself whole heartedly to the task of disseminating the spirit of equality. Agriculture and mining have made notable progress, and manufacturing industries have developed remarkably. Business and commerce prosper and the volume of trade is expanding each year. Education has been improving and as culture has progressed, the customs and dress of the Korean people have become less and less different from those in Japan itself. A special military system has been established and as a result many Korean volunteers are now fulfilling their obligation to help defend the Empire.' (Quoted in James McLain, pg 463) 1. According to this source, what benefits has Japanese rule brought to Korea? 2. Compare and contrast this source with the source in Task One. 3. What was the impact of the Second World War on Korea? Korean volunteers in the Japanese Imperial Army, 1943 The pressures faced by Japan as it fought an unwinnable war in China and, from 1942, being pushed back by the US in the Pacific, meant increased hardships for the Koreans as well as more intense propaganda to ensure that Koreans were totally loyal. Korea experienced 'total war' policies as the economy and the population were mobilised for the war effort. Koreans were also involved directly in the fighting and the war effort in several ways. 1. Many Koreans ended up filling labour shortages in Japan and Manchuria as well as other newly acquired land such as Sakhalin Island. These Koreans were forced to work in coal mines, military plants and munition factories and they suffered terrible conditions. Many thousands died from the inhumane conditions and also in the Allied bombing. 2. Tens of thousands of women were coerced or lured by promises of economic reward into the 'Comfort Corps' which set up brothels for the Japanese military. 3. Koreans joined the Imperial Army as 'volunteers'. From 1944, Koreans were conscripted into the army. 4. Some Koreans acted as prison guards for the Japanese and became notorious for their brutality As many as 70,000 Korean males died as manual laborers in Japan or as 'volunteers' in the Imperial Army during the war. Task One ATL: Research skills The following news broadcast showing the only footage of 'comfort women': Research further the issue of 'comfort women'. These sites will help you: http://www.history.com/news/comfort-women-japan-military-brothels-korea http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/facts-12.html This article from 2018 gives further details on the row between Korea and Japan on Comfort Women. With Japan's formal surrender to the Allies, its rule of Korea ended. Many Koreans who had become prisoners of war were repatriated to Korea. However, many Koreans who survived their forced labour in Japan were not allowed to become citizens of Japan and they were also shunned by the South Korean government. In addition, 148 Koreans were convicted of war crimes and 3 of those who convicted were sentenced to death. Those who were convicted included many prison guards were had gained a notorious reputation for brutality in the Japanese POW camps. 4. Why did Korea end up as a divided country after 1945? South Koreans protesting Allied trusteeship in 1945  'The crucible of the period of national division and opposing states that still exists in Korea was the years from 1943 to 1953. The political and ideological divisions that we associate with the Cold War were the reasons for Korea's division; they came early to Korea, before the onset of the global Cold War, and today they outlast the end of the Cold War everywhere else.' Bruce Cumings, pg 185 Already at the Tehran Conference of 1943, where the Allied