Earth Science Review Chapter 1-5 PDF

10/5/2024 Review Chapter 1 to 5 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 1  10/5/2024 Subspecialties of Earth Science Subspecialties of Earth Science....

10/5/2024 Review Chapter 1 to 5 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 1  10/5/2024 Subspecialties of Earth Science Subspecialties of Earth Science. Astronomy Meteorology Astrophysics Climatology Planetary Science Atmospheric Chemistry Earth Science 3 Subspecialties of Earth Science Subspecialties of Earth Science. Geology Paleontology Geochemistry Earth Science 4 2  10/5/2024 Subspecialties of Earth Science Subspecialties of Earth Science. Environmental Oceanography Science Physical Oceanography Environmental Soil Science Marine Geology Environmental Chemistry Earth Science 5 Earth’s Systems Scientists who study Earth have identified four main Earth systems: Earth Science 6 3  10/5/2024 Scientific Method The Nature of Scientific Investigations The independent variable in an experiment is the factor that is changed by the experimenter. A dependent variable is a factor that is affected by changes in the independent variable. A control is used in an experiment to show that the results of an experiment are a result of the condition being tested. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Methods of Scientists 4  10/5/2024 Communicating Results Graphs Circle graphs show a fixed quantity using slices representing parts of the whole. Bar graphs represent quantitative data using bars. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Communication in Science Measurement Le Système International d’Unités (SI) is a modern version of the metric system based on a decimal system. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education 5  10/5/2024 Chapter 2 Maps, Maps and More Maps Latitude The equator is an imaginary horizontal line located at 0° latitude that circles Earth and separates it into two equal halves. Latitude is the distance in degrees north or south of the equator. Lines of latitude run parallel to the equator. Longitude Longitude is the distance in degrees east or west of the prime meridian. The prime meridian is an imaginary line that represents 0° longitude. Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are semicircles that extend vertically from pole to pole. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Latitude and Longitude 6  10/5/2024 Projections A Mercator projection is a map that has parallel lines of latitude and longitude. It clearly indicates direction in straight lines. It is used for the navigation of ships and planes. A conic projection is made by projecting points and lines from a globe onto a cone. It has a high degree of accuracy for limited areas. It is used to make road maps and weather maps. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Maps Topographic Maps A contour line connects points of equal elevation on a topographic map. The difference in elevation between two side-by-side contour lines is called the contour interval. Geologic Maps A geologic map is used to show the distribution, arrangement, and type of rocks located below the soil. It may also show geologic features such as fault lines. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Maps 7  10/5/2024 Parts of a Map Landsat Satellite Passive The process of gathering data about Earth using instruments mounted on satellites, airplanes, or ships is called remote sensing. Landsat satellites record reflected wavelengths of visible light and infrared radiation from Earth’s surface, and then computers convert the information into digital images. Landsat data are used to study pollution, the movements of Earth’s plates, and the melting of glaciers and ice caps. OSTM/Jason-2 Satellite One satellite that uses radar to measure and map sea surface height is the OSTM/Jason-2 satellite. Radar uses high-frequency signals that are transmitted from the satellite to the surface of the ocean. A receiving device then picks up the returning echo as it is reflected off the water. SeaBeam A sound wave is sent from a ship toward the ocean floor. A receiving device picks up the returning echo when it bounces off the seafloor. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Remote Sensing 8  10/5/2024 The Global Positioning System Uses for GPS technology GPS technology is used extensively in navigation by airplanes and ships. GPS receivers also help people in everyday life to find a destination or determine their current location. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Remote Sensing The Geographic Information System The Geographic Information System (GIS) uses a worldwide database to create layers, or “themes,” of information that can be placed one on top of the other to create a comprehensive map. GIS map layers remain linked to the original information, so if the original information changes, the GIS layers also change. The result is a map that is always up-to-date. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Remote Sensing 9  10/5/2024 Chapter 3 All about Matter Atoms Matter is anything that has volume and mass. All matter is made of substances called elements. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical or chemical means. Elements are made up of atoms. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Matter 10  10/5/2024 Atoms All atoms consist of even smaller particles—protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of an atom is called the nucleus, which is made up of protons and neutrons. A proton is a tiny particle that has mass and a positive electric charge. A neutron is a tiny particle with approximately the same mass as a proton, but it has no electrical charge. Mass number The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is its atomic number. The sum of the protons and the neutrons in an atom’s nucleus is its mass number. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Matter Isotopes All atoms of an element have the same number of protons. However, the number of neutrons of an element’s atoms can vary. Atoms of the same element that have different mass numbers are called isotopes. The atomic mass of an element is the average of the mass numbers of the isotopes of an element. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Matter 11  10/5/2024 Electrons in Energy Levels Valence electrons The electrons in the outermost energy level, called valence electrons, determine the chemical behavior of the different elements. Elements with the same number of valence electrons have similar chemical properties. Elements that have full outermost energy levels are highly unreactive, which means that they do not combine easily with other elements. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Matter Compounds A compound is a substance that is composed of atoms of two or more different elements that are chemically combined. Compounds have different properties from the elements of which they are composed. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Combining Matter 12  10/5/2024 Covalent Bonds A state of stability is achieved by some elements by forming chemical bonds. A chemical bond is the force that holds together the elements in a compound. The attraction of two atoms for a shared pair of electrons that holds the atoms together is called a covalent bond. Ionic Bonds A sodium atom tends to lose a single valence electron, and a chlorine atom tends to gain a single valence electron. An ionic bond is formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Combining Matter Metallic Bonding In a metallic bond, the positive ions of the metal are held together by the attraction to the negative electrons moving among them. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Combining Matter 13  10/5/2024 Mixtures and Solutions A mixture is a combination of two or more components that retain their identities. When a mixture’s components are easily recognizable, it is called a heterogeneous mixture. In a homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, the component particles cannot be distinguished, even though they still retain their original properties. A solution can be liquid, gaseous, or solid. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Combining Matter Mixtures and Solutions Acids An acid is a solution containing a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water. The pH scale is based on the amount of hydrogen ions in a solution. Bases When a solution produces hydroxide ions (OH–) in water, the solution is called a base. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Combining Matter 14  10/5/2024 Four States of Matter Solids Liquids Gases Plasma Solids are substances with When thermal vibrations Some vibrating particles At extreme densely packed particles, become vigorous can gain sufficient thermal temperatures, the which can be ions, atoms, or enough to break the collisions between energy to escape a liquid. molecules. forces holding the solid particles in matter are together, the particles Gases have no definite so violent that Most solids are crystalline can slide past each electrons are shape. structures because the other, and the substance knocked away from particles of a solid are becomes liquid. Gases also have no atoms, resulting in arranged in regular definite volume unless they hot, highly ionized, geometric patterns, giving Liquids take the shape of electrically are restrained by a solids definite shape and the container they are conducting gases volume. placed in, but they do container or a force such called plasmas. have a definite volume. as gravity. Solids Solids melt when they absorb enough thermal energy to cause their orderly internal crystalline arrangement to break down. This happens at the melting point. Liquids When liquids are cooled, they solidify at that same temperature and release thermal energy. The temperature at which liquids solidify is called the freezing point. When a liquid is heated to the boiling point and absorbs enough thermal energy, vaporization occurs, and the liquid becomes a gas. Gas When a gas is cooled to the boiling point, it releases thermal energy and becomes a liquid in a process called condensation. The slow change of state from a solid to a gas without an intermediate liquid state is called sublimation. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education States of Matter 15  10/5/2024 Chapter 4 All the Shinny Minerals Mineral Characteristics Naturally occurring and inorganic Minerals are naturally occurring, meaning that they are formed by natural processes. All minerals are inorganic: they are not made from living organisms. The atoms in minerals are arranged in regular, repeated, geometric patterns that result in the formation of a crystal. Minerals are solids and therefore have definite shapes and volumes. Each type of mineral has a chemical composition unique to that mineral. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What is a mineral? 16  10/5/2024 Rock-Forming Minerals Minerals from magma Molten material that forms and accumulates below Earth’s surface is called magma. Magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rock, so it can rise upward into the cooler layers of Earth’s interior, where it cools and crystallizes. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What is a mineral? Rock-Forming Minerals Minerals from solutions A liquid is saturated when it becomes full of a dissolved substance and can dissolve no more of that substance. If more of the substance is added to a saturated solution, it is called supersaturated, and mineral crystals form into solids from the solution. Minerals that form from the evaporation of the liquid in which they were dissolved are called evaporites. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What is a mineral? 17  10/5/2024 Identifying Minerals Geologists identify minerals using tests based on a mineral’s physical and chemical properties: crystal form, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, streak, color, specific gravity, texture, density, and special properties. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What is a mineral? Mineral Groups In order to study the many minerals on Earth and understand their properties, geologists have classified them into groups. Each group has a distinct chemical nature and specific characteristics. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Minerals 18  10/5/2024 Mineral Groups Silicates Minerals that contain silicon and oxygen, and usually one or more other elements, are known as silicates. Silicates make up approximately 96 percent of the minerals present in Earth’s crust..Carbonates Carbonates are minerals composed of one or more metallic elements and the carbonate ion CO32–. Magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rock, so it can rise upward into the cooler layers of Earth’s interior, where it cools and crystallizes. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Minerals Mineral Groups Oxides Oxides are compounds of oxygen and a metal, such as hematite (Fe2O3). Sufates Sulfates are compounds of elements with the sulfate ion (SO42–), such as anhydrite (CaSO4). Halides Halides are made up of chloride or fluoride along with calcium, sodium, or potassium, such as halite (NaCl). Native elements Native elements are made up of one element only, such as silver (Ag). Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Minerals 19  10/5/2024 Mineral Groups Other groups Native elements are made up of one element only, such as silver (Ag). Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Minerals Economic Minerals Minerals are used to make computers, cars, televisions, desks, roads, buildings, jewelry, beds, paints, sports equipment, medicines, and many other things. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Types of Minerals 20  10/5/2024 Chapter 5 Birth of a Rock Igneous Rock Formation Composition of magma The type of igneous rock that forms depends on the composition of the magma, which is often a slushy mix of molten rock, dissolved gases, and mineral crystals. Magma is classified as basaltic, andesitic, or rhyolitic, based on the amount of silica it contains. Silica affects melting temperature and impacts how quickly magma flows. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What are igneous rocks? 21  10/5/2024 Igneous Rock Formation Magma formation Magma can be formed either by melting of Earth’s crust or by melting within the mantle. The four main factors involved in the formation of magma are: Temperature, Pressure, Water content, Mineral content. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What are igneous rocks? Igneous Rock Formation Partial melting The process whereby some minerals melt at relatively low temperatures while other minerals remain solid is called partial melting. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What are igneous rocks? 22  10/5/2024 Bowen’s Reaction Series Bowen discovered two main patterns, or branches, of crystallization. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What are igneous rocks? Fractional Crystallization When magma cools, the first minerals that crystallize are the last minerals that melted during partial melting. This process is called fractional crystallization. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education What are igneous rocks? 23  10/5/2024 Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks When magma cools and crystallizes below Earth’s surface, intrusive rocks form. Magma that cools and crystallizes on Earth’s surface forms extrusive rocks. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Classification of Igneous Rocks Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are classified by their mineral compositions. Basaltic rocks, also called mafic rocks, are dark-colored, have lower silica contents, and contain mostly plagioclase and pyroxene. Granitic rocks, also called felsic rocks, are light-colored, have high silica contents, and contain mostly quartz and feldspar. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Classification of Igneous Rocks 24  10/5/2024 Texture Crystal size and cooling rates When lava cools so quickly that crystals do not form, volcanic glass is the result. When magma cools slowly below Earth’s surface, there is sufficient time for large crystals to form. Thus, intrusive rocks can have crystals larger than 1 cm. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Classification of Igneous Rocks Igneous Rocks as Resources Veins Valuable ore deposits often occur within igneous intrusions. At other times, they may occur as veins in the rocks surrounding intrusions. Pegmatites Veins of extremely large-grained minerals that can contain ores are called pegmatites. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Classification of Igneous Rocks 25  10/5/2024 Igneous Rocks as Resources Kimberlites Diamonds and other minerals that can form only under very high pressure are found in rare, ultrabasic rocks known as kimberlites. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Classification of Igneous Rocks Homework Read Chapter 6 Section 1 Before You Leave!! Hand in 1. Any late work before the end of next Friday 26