Covenant University Research Methods ARC 318 PDF

www.covenantuniversity.edu.ng Raising a new Generation of Leaders ARC 318 RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH METHODS WEEK 1 Introduction 2  Outline Introduction. An overview of research. Re...

www.covenantuniversity.edu.ng Raising a new Generation of Leaders ARC 318 RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH METHODS WEEK 1 Introduction 2  Outline Introduction. An overview of research. Research defined. Characteristics of research. Why Research? Areas of architectural research concerns. General concepts of research techniques 3  INTRODUCTION Man is an inquisitive animal or person in nature, this is the reason for research. Reason to ask question, and most of our inquisitives are informal and not systematic enquiries. And for any enquiries there must be a problem. And if man do not solve problem and over come it , it will soon go into extinction. 4  INTRODUCTION Inquisitives Leading to enquires Systematic enquiries To solve problems. Research is not an end to itself but a means to an end. Research is systematic and should be planned. 5  The meaning of Research A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on specific topic. An art of scientific investigation. A careful investigation or inquire specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. (Advance learner’s Dictionary of Current English). 6  WHAT IS NOT RESEARCH? Research is not mere information gathering. Research is not mere transportation of facts from one location to another. Research is not merely rummaging for information. Research is not a catchword used to get attention. Research is different from documentation. 7  WHAT IS RESEARCH? Scientific inquiry or investigation. Originates with a question or practical problem. It increases knowledge. It is systematic. It is methodological and ethical. Divides the principal problem into more manageable sub problems. Guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis. Accepts certain critical assumptions. Requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research. ( Obtaining data, analyzing data and interpreting data. 8  WHAT IS RESEARCH? Research is an academic activity. Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, this involves colleting, organising and evaluating data: making deductions and reaching conclusions: and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis(Clifford Woody). 9  WHAT IS RESEARCH? An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancements. The pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem. 10  WHY RESEARCH? Review or synthesize existing knowledge Investigate existing situations or problems Provide solutions to problems Explore and analyse more general issues Construct or create new procedures or systems Explain new phenomenon Generate new knowledge A combination of any of the above 11  CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH. Original work Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories. Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure. Logical- Based on valid procedures and principles Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation Critical- Careful and precise judgment 12  CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical Employs qualitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically Replicability- The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Cyclical- Starts with a problem and ends with a problem 13  AREAS OF ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH CONCERNS. design and theory, architectural history, theory and criticism, architecture science and technology, urban planning and design, landscape architecture, the culture of architecture, architectural computing and digital media, housing, architectural education and practice 14  RESEARCH STEPS Identify the problem and develop your topic Formulate your question Get background information Make an outline of headings Refine your search topic/ review relevant literature Consider your resource options Select the most appropriate investigative methods and research tools Develop your data collection tool(s) Collect data Analyse data Organize and write Compose your bibliography/ reference 15  Characteristics of a good research Clarity Brevity Rigor/ Consistency Effective analysis/ Synthesis Depth 16  Types of research Descriptive research Analytical research Fundamental research Conceptual research Empirical research One time research or longitudinal research Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research Clinical or diagnostic research Exploratory research Historical research Conclusion oriented research Case study research Short term research 17  Types of research Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive Explanatory Applied research 18  Types of research Exploratory  Major purpose is to obtain a general insight or idea about the nature of a phenomenon or key variable or factor in a study  Findings of such studies form the basis for further research  Techniques include case studies, observation and reviews of previous related studies and data. 19 Types of research Explanatory  Beyond description, tries to explain reasons for findings  Theories are used as basis for understanding a situation or procedure 20  Types of research Exploratory  Undertaken when no previous study exists 21  Types of research Descriptive  Used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject  Major purpose is to portray the current or past situation involves largely a description of situation, conditions or variables e.g. legal/ Administrative framework for Urban land planning and Development 22  Types of research Descriptive  Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyse and summarise data  Used to assess characteristics, attitudes, facts, opinions, beliefs and behaviour  Researcher only reports findings 23  Types of research Analytical  Concerned with testing hypothesis  Purpose is to derive and interpret relationships  Analyses the information already available  Used to suggest or explain why or how something is happening  It could be historical, mathematical, or linguistic analysis 24  Analytic vs Descriptive Research Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine, describe, or identify something  The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or information together Analytic – the attempt to establish why something occurs or how it came to be All disciplines generally engage in both 25  Types of research Predictive  Used to speculate intelligently on future possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect 26  Types of research Predictive 27  Applied research Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. to improve the human condition focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. generally conducted on a large scale basis and is expensive 28  Types of research Conceptual and empirical research Conceptual  Related to some abstract ideas or theory  Used by philosopher and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical research  Data based research.  An experimental type of research  Getting at facts first-hand at their source  With conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. 29 Types of research: Quantitative and Qualitative research  Quantitative Based on the measurement of quantity or amount Applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships 30  Types of research: Quantitative The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The inferences from it are largely based on quantitative data. Objectivity is the primary guard so that the research may be replicated by others, if necessary. 31  Types of research: Quantitative and Qualitative Qualitative Concerned with qualitative phenomenon, involving quality or kind e.g human behaviour i.e why people think or do certain things, attitude or opinion research e.g what people feel or thing about something, likes or dislikes of a particular thing. Qualitative research presents a non-quantitative type of analysis 32  Types of research: Qualitative Qualitative research is collecting, analysing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended. 33 RESEARCH METHOD ARC 328 WEEK 3: FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH I 34  Outline Methodology and method Research approaches classification of systems of inquiry. Research Philosophies, Positivism, naturalism and critical approaches to research (Methods of inquiry) 35  The Process of Research The process is initiated with a question or problem (step 1) Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal with the question or problem (step 2) Then the research design is developed to achieve the objectives (step 3) Results are generated by conducting the research (step 4) Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step 5) 36 The Process of Research 37  Methodology and Method Defined & Described Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly) used interchangeable Methodology – the study of the general approach to inquiry in a given field. Method – the specific techniques, tools or procedures applied to achieve a given objective. 38  Methodology and Method Method- approaches used in a particular study. This includes:  Why data was collected  What data was collected  Where data was collected  How data was collected  How data was analyses This involves all method/techniques that the researcher used in performing /conducting the research operation. 39  Method Methods are concerned with :  Data collection  Statistical techniques for establishment of relationship between data and unknown.  Evaluating the accuracy of results obtained 40  Methodology Methodology- The means or way of investigating or looking into a matter/ overall approaches and perspectives.  The ’how’ of research  The spine of the research  The scientific content of the research  The basis of good reliability and validity of research 41  Methodology A systematic way to solve the research problem. Science of understanding how research is done. Research should know the relevant method and which are not the right method. 42 Methodology 43  METHODS OF INQUIRY How can I know? Seeking to know and inquire; such as through:  Appreciative/ naturalism  Critical  Scientific/ positivism 44 METHODS OF INQUIRY  Appreciative/ naturalism ‒Referred to as interpretive/constructivist ‒Multiple truths ‒Focus on meanings, values and experiences ‒Subjective ‒Largely inductive 45 METHODS OF INQUIRY  Critical ‒Aim to change power relations ‒Multiple truths ‒Close interaction between researcher and object of research ‒Reflective 46 METHODS OF INQUIRY  Scientific ‒One basic truth ‒Objective ‒Largely deductive 47 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES AND APPROACHES TO RESEARCH 48  Research Philosophy A research philosophy is a belief about the way in which data about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used. The term epistemology (what is known to be true) as opposed to doxology (what is believed to be true) encompasses the various philosophies of research approach. The research philosophy you adopt contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world. These assumptions will underpin your research strategy and the methods you choose as part of that strategy. 49 Research philosophy Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge. In simple terms, a research philosophy is belief about the ways in which data about a phenomenon should be collected, analysed and used. 50  Research philosophy Each stage of the research process is based on assumptions about the sources and the nature of knowledge. The research philosophy will reflect the author’s important assumptions and these assumptions serve as base for the research strategy. Generally, research philosophy has many branches related to a wide range of disciplines. Within the scope of business studies in particular there are four main research philosophies: Pragmatism Positivism Realism Interpretivism (Interpretivist) Naturalism 51 Research philosophy Pragmatism Positivism Realism Interpretivism Highly structured, Methods chosen Mixed or multiple large samples, Small samples, must fit the Popular data method designs, measurement, in-depth subject matter, collection method quantitative and quantitative, but investigations, quantitative or qualitative can use qualitative qualitative qualitative 52  Pragmatism research philosophy Pragmatism research philosophy accepts concepts to be relevant only if they support action. Pragmatics “recognise that there are many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities. 53 Pragmatism research philosophy 54  Interpretivism research philosophy Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves researchers to interpret elements of the study, thus interpretivism integrates human interest into a study. Accordingly, “interpretive researchers assume that access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments. Development of interpretivist philosophy is based on the critique of positivism in social sciences. Accordingly, this philosophy emphasizes qualitative analysis over quantitative analysis. 55  Realism research philosophy Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind. This philosophy is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge.... In other words, direct realism portrays the world through personal human senses. Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind. This philosophy is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. Realism can be divided into two groups: direct and critical. 56  Positivism Research philosophy Positivism is the term used to describe an approach to the study of society that relies specifically on scientific evidence, such as experiments and statistics, to reveal a true nature of how society operates. Positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies the role of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation in an objective way. In these types of studies research findings are usually observable and quantifiable. Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses. It has been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that knowledge stems from human experience. 57  Positivism research philosophy Positivists prefer quantitative methods such as social surveys, structured questionnaires and official statistics because these have good reliability and representativeness. Positivists see society as shaping the individual and believe that ‘social facts’ shape individual action. The positivist tradition stresses the importance of doing quantitative research such as large scale surveys in order to get an overview of society as a whole and to uncover social trends, such as the relationship between educational achievement and social class. This type of sociology is more interested in trends and patterns rather than individuals. 58  Positivism research philosophy Positivists also believe that sociology can and should use the same methods and approaches to study the social world that “natural” sciences such as biology and physics use to investigate the physical world. By adopting “scientific” techniques sociologists should be able, eventually, to uncover the laws that govern societies just as scientists have discovered the laws that govern the physical world. In positivist research, sociologists tend to look for relationships, or ‘correlations’ between two or more variables. This is known as the comparative method, 59 Positivism research 60  Positivism research philosophy Summary The five main principles of positivism research philosophy can be summarized as the following: There are no differences in the logic of inquiry across sciences. The research should aim to explain and predict. Research should be empirically observable via human senses. Inductive reasoning should be used to develop statements (hypotheses) to be tested during the research process. Science is not the same as the common sense. The common sense should not be allowed to bias the research findings. Science must be value-free and it should be judged only by logic. 61 Naturalism research philosophy Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. 62 Naturalism research philosophy 63  Critical approaches to research The critical method seeks to correct sociological conclusions or to disprove faulty conclusions. A generic term usually applied to any research that challenges those conventional knowledge bases and methodologies whether quantitative or qualitative – that make claims of scientific objectivity 64  Critical approaches to research This is from a methodological perspective where the development of new methods and approaches in visual methods, visual and performing arts in education research and in the development of Qualitative Comparative Analysis. It is also from a philosophical perspective which engages with concepts and values in education in order to challenge orthodoxy or support the development of new approaches in education. Critical and interpretive research styles are often qualitative and more subjective than statistically- based positive techniques. 65  Creativity in the Research Process Research is a creative process “…research includes far more than mere logic … It includes insight, genius, groping, pondering – ‘sense’ … The logic we can teach; the art we cannot” Research requires (or at least works best) with imagination, initiative, intuition, and curiosity. There are different types of creativity, characteristic of different situations – “applied” and “theoretical” most closely associate with economic research 66  Fostering Creativity (Ladd 1987) A. Gather and use previously developed knowledge B. Exchange ideas C. Apply deductive logic D. Look at things alternate ways E. Question or challenge assumptions F. Search for patterns or relationships G. Take risks H. Cultivate tolerance for uncertainty 67  Fostering Creativity … cont. I. Allow curiosity to grow J. Set problems aside … and come back to them K. Write down your thoughts “… frequently I don’t know what I think until I write it” L. Freedom from distraction … some time to think. Creativity may provide the difference between satisfactory and outstanding research. 68 Week 4 RESEARCH APPROACHES 69 Scientific researches Research approaches  Ways of researching Research philosophies  Personal ideas about researching 70  RESEARCH APPROACHES Deductive/ inductive Applied/basic Qualitative/quantitative 71 Research approaches: Deductive/ Inductive Inductive  Inductive research moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general ideas/theories. ‒Begins not with a pre-established truth or assumption but with an observation. ‒In inductive reasoning, people use specific instances or occurrences to draw conclusions about entire classes of objects or events. That is, from an observed sample, conclusions are drawn about the population from the sample outcomes. 72  Research approaches: Inductive Inductive reasoning works the other way from Deductive, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach. In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories. 73  Research approaches Deductive/ Inductive Deductive  Deductive research begins with one or more premises – premises are statements or assumptions that are self-evident truths. ‒Reasoning proceeds logically from these premises to conclusions that must also be true. ‒Deductive logic is extremely valuable for generating research hypotheses and testing theories. 74  Research approaches Deductive Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. Can narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. 75  Research approaches Deductive Researcher move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or she is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. 76  Differences between the two: Inductive and Deductive Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open- ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Why Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it's purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment on some outcome) 77  Differences between the two: Inductive and Deductive The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches to research is that whilst a deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data. A deductive approach usually begins with a hypothesis, whilst an inductive approach will usually use research questions to narrow the scope of the study. 78  Differences between the two: Inductive and Deductive For deductive approaches the emphasis is generally on causality, whilst for inductive approaches the aim is usually focused on exploring new phenomena or looking at previously researched phenomena from a different perspective. Inductive approaches are generally associated with qualitative research, whilst deductive approaches are more commonly associated with quantitative research. However, there are no set rules and some qualitative studies may have a deductive orientation. 79  Differences between the two: Inductive and Deductive Most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. In fact, it doesn't take a rocket scientist to see that. Example is when the researcher assemble two graphs into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to observations and back up again to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories. 80  SUMMARY DEDUCTIVE The deductive approach is when a hypothesis is developed from an already existing theory. They start with a social theory that they find compelling and then test its implications with data. They move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. INDUCTIVE In an inductive approach to research, a researcher begins by collecting data that is relevant to his or her topic of interest. Once a considerable amount of data has been collected, the researcher will then take a time out from data collection, stepping back to get a bird’s eye view of their data. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the data, working to develop a theory that could explain those patterns. 81  SUMMARY DIFFERENCES The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches to research is that whilst a deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data. An inductive approach makes broad generalisations from specific observations. Inductive gives new knowledge whereas deductive doesn’t as there is already a theory there. Although they seem very different from one another, they complement each other as when doing researcher, the researcher may need to use inductive and deductive to get where they want to. 82  Research approaches Summary: Deductive/ Inductive approach in research The most important point to bear in mind when considering whether to use an inductive or deductive approach is firstly the purpose of your research; and secondly the methods that are best suited to either test a hypothesis, explore a new or emerging area within the discipline, or to answer specific research questions. 83 Research approaches Applied/basic  Applied research is designed from the start to apply its findings to a particular situation.  Basic research is to improve knowledge generally, without any particular applied purpose in mind at the outset. 84  Research approaches Qualitative/quantitative  Quantitative research entails collecting and analysing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc. of phenomenon. ‒ is usually highly detailed and structured and ‒ results can be easily collated and presented statistically  Qualitative research involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. ‒ difficult to interpret and present the findings; ‒ the findings can also be challenged more easily 85  QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research is used to gain a deeper understanding of the subject. It helps to develop ideas or hypothesises. It is used to uncover trends in thoughts and opinions. Common methods used are focused groups, individual interviews and observations. In a media studies aspect, I would use individual interviews to get peoples true opinions on music magazines. CHARACTERISTICS The questions asked are broad and open. The data that is collected is words and text as the questions asked are open which means the answer can go anywhere. They look on a smaller scale to get peoples true meanings and opinions. Descriptions and analysis for themes and general trends that may occur. Can be biased as things can be manipulated. 86  QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is a way of collecting numerical research or data which then can be converted into useable statistics. It uses measure able data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Common methods used are questionnaires and surveys. For media studies, I would use both of these types of methods to get numerical data so then I can turn this into facts and statistics and find the trends. CHARACTERISTICS Can ask specific questions. You can collect data from participants. Numbers can be analysed using statistics. This type of research is unbiased towards the subject matter. 87  Research approaches Qualitative/quantitative Question Quantitative Qualitative  What is the purpose of the -To explain & predict -To describe &explain research -To confirm & validate -To explore & -To test theory interpret -To build theory  What is the nature of the -Focused -Holistic research process -Known variables -Unknown variables -Established guidelines -Flexible guidelines -Static design -Emergent design -context-free -Context-bound -Detached View Personal View 88  Research approaches Qualitative/quantitative Question Quantitative Qualitative  What are the methods of data- -Representative, large sample. -Informative, small collection -Standardized instruments sample -Observations, interviews  What is the form of reasoning used -Deductive analysis -Inductive analysis in analysis  How often are the findings -Numbers -Words communicated -Statistics, aggregated data -Narratives, individual -Formal voice, Scientific style quotes. -Personal voice literary style 89