Research Methodology PDF

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH This page intentionally left blank EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Competencies for Analysis and Applications T E N TH E D I TI O N L. R. Gay Late of Florida International University...

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH This page intentionally left blank EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Competencies for Analysis and Applications T E N TH E D I TI O N L. R. Gay Late of Florida International University Geoffrey E. Mills Southern Oregon University Peter Airasian Boston College Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Vice President and Editorial Director: Senior Art Director: Diane Lorenzo Jeffery W. 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This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gay, L. R. Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications/L.R. Gay, Geoffrey E. Mills; Peter Airasian.—10th ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-261317-0 ISBN-10: 0-13-261317-4 1. Education—Research. I. Mills, Geoffrey E. II. Airasian, Peter W. III. Title. LB1028.G37 2012 370.72—dc22 2011013065 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-13-261317-4 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-261317-0 Preface NEW TO THIS EDITION for identifying a research problem and understanding the relationships between Like the ninth edition, the tenth edition reflects a problem identification, hypothesis writing, combination of both unsolicited and solicited in- and the development of research questions. put. Positive feedback suggested aspects of the text Chapter 3 has undergone significant revision that should not be changed—the writing style and because of the way technology has affected the focus on ethical practice, for example. Those the literature review process. Changes include aspects remain. However, we wanted to provide a Digital Research Tools feature on Google something unique for the readers of the tenth edi- Book and Google Scholar, a new section on tion, so we created the new Digital Research the evaluation of Internet sources, and step- Tools for the 21st Century feature. This recur- by-step directions for an ERIC EBSCO search ring feature introduces novel tools and methods that maximizes the power of university library researchers can use to make the process of doing consortium agreements to identify fully online research easier or more efficient, such as using journal articles. speech recognition programs to save time transcrib- The chapters on Descriptive and Inferential ing interviews (Chapter 15), using flip cameras and Statistics (12 and 13) have been updated to Skype to collect qualitative data (Chapter 14), and reflect new versions of SPSS and Excel. using management programs to organize citations (Chapter 21). In addition, we have included sum- In addition, we have added new tables and mary tables at the beginning of all the methods figures throughout the text. Every chapter has been chapters that outline all of the important character- edited and updated. References have been updated. istics of the method, such as steps in the process and potential challenges associated with it. In ad- PHILOSOPHY AND PURPOSE dition, users requested an update of some of the This text is designed primarily for use in the journal articles contained in the text so you will see introductory course in educational research that is new articles used in Chapters 1 and 22. a basic requirement for many graduate programs. Content changes reflect the inclusion of new Because the topic coverage of the text is relatively topics and the expansion or clarification of exist- comprehensive, it may be easily adapted for use ing topics. There are many improvements in this in either a senior-level undergraduate course or a edition, and we describe the more significant high- more advanced graduate-level course. lights here: The philosophy that guided the development A new section has been added to Chapter 1 of the current and previous editions of this text was called “The Continuum of Research Philosophies” the conviction that an introductory research course that addresses the context, history, and should be more oriented toward skill and applica- philosophy behind research and how it connects tion than toward theory. Thus, the purpose of this to current research practices. text is for students to become familiar with research In Chapter 1, the discussion of ethical mainly at a “how-to” skill and application level. guidelines for qualitative researchers has been The authors do not mystify students with theoreti- updated and expanded to help qualitative cal and statistical jargon. They strive to provide a researchers prepare for potential ethical down-to-earth approach that helps students acquire dilemmas encountered in conducting intimate, the skills and knowledge required of a competent field-based research. consumer and producer of educational research. Chapter 2 includes a new section and figure The emphasis is not just on what the student knows on conceptualizing research questions that but also on what the student can do with what provides researchers with improved guidelines he or she knows. It is recognized that being a v vi PREFACE “good” researcher involves more than the acquisi- skills needed to conduct a comprehensive review tion of skills and knowledge; in any field, important of related literature, allows the student to see the research is usually produced by those who through similarities and differences in research approaches experience have acquired insights, intuitions, and and to understand more fully how the nature of strategies related to the research process. Research the research question influences the selection of a of any worth, however, is rarely conducted in the research method. Part II includes description and absence of basic research skills and knowledge. discussion of different quantitative research meth- A fundamental assumption of this text is that the ods and the data collection and analysis needs of competencies required of a competent consumer of each. Part III includes two chapters devoted to the research overlap considerably with those required statistical approaches and the analysis and interpre- of a competent producer of research. A person is tation of quantitative data. Part IV includes quali- in a much better position to evaluate the work of tative research methods, differentiating between others after she or he has performed the major approaches and describing the collection, analysis, tasks involved in the research process. and interpretation of qualitative data. Part V is dedi- cated to the discussion, application, and analysis of mixed methods research designs. Part VI focuses ORGANIZATION AND STRATEGY on the design and implementation of action re- search and presents the dialectic action research The overall strategy of the text is to promote spiral as a model for conducting such research. students’ attainment of a degree of expertise in Part VII focuses on helping the student prepare research through the acquisition of knowledge and a research report, either for the completion of a by involvement in the research process. degree requirement or for publication in a refereed journal. Finally, in Part VIII, the student applies the skills and knowledge acquired in Parts I through Organization VII and critiques a research report. In the tenth edition, Part I includes discussion of the scientific and disciplined inquiry approach and its application in education. The main steps in the Strategy research process and the purpose and methods of This text represents more than just a textbook the various approaches to research are discussed. to be incorporated into a course; it is a total in- In Part I, each student selects and delineates a re- structional system that includes stated learning search problem of interest that has relevance to his outcomes, instruction, and procedures for evalu- or her professional area. Throughout the rest of the ating each outcome. The instructional strategy of text, the student then simulates the procedures that the system emphasizes the demonstration of skills would be followed in conducting a study designed and individualization within this structure. Each to investigate the problem; each chapter develops chapter begins with a list of learning outcomes a specific skill or set of skills required for the ex- that describes the knowledge and skills that the ecution of such a research study. Specifically, the student should gain from the chapter. In many student learns about the application of the scientific instances, learning outcomes may be assessed ei- method in education and the ethical considerations ther as written exercises submitted by students or that affect the conduct of any educational research by tests, whichever the instructor prefers. In most (Chapter 1), identifies a research topic and formu- chapters, a task to be performed is described next. lates hypotheses (Chapter 2), conducts a review Tasks require students to demonstrate that they of the related literature (Chapter 3), develops a can perform particular research functions. Because research plan (Chapter 4), selects and defines sam- each student works with a different research prob- ples (Chapter 5), and evaluates and selects mea- lem, each student demonstrates the competency suring instruments (Chapter 6). Throughout these required by a task as it applies to his or her own chapters are parallel discussions of quantitative and problem. With the exception of Chapter 1, an indi- qualitative research constructs. This organization, vidual chapter is directed toward the attainment of with increased emphasis on ethical considerations only one task (occasionally, students have a choice in the conduct of educational research and the between a quantitative and qualitative task).  PREFACE vii Text discussion is intended to be as simple in class and save instructors preparation and and straightforward as possible. Whenever feasible, grading time, these assignable exercises give procedures are presented as a series of steps, and students opportunities to apply class content to concepts are explained in terms of illustrative ex- research scenarios. (Correct answers for these amples. In a number of cases, relatively complex assignments are available to the instructor only.) topics or topics beyond the scope of the text are Building Skills for Reading Research These exercises presented at a very elementary level, and students help students develop skills that are essential for are directed to other sources for additional, in-depth understanding and carrying out research. discussion. There is also a degree of intentional Study Plan A MyEducationLab Study Plan consists repetition; a number of concepts are discussed in of multiple-choice assessments tied to learning different contexts and from different perspectives. outcomes, supported by study material. A well- Also, at the risk of eliciting more than a few groans, designed Study Plan offers multiple opportunities an attempt has been made to sprinkle the text with to fully master required course content as touches of humor—a hallmark of this text spanning identified by learning outcomes: three decades—and perhaps best captured by the Learning Outcomes for each topic give students pictures and quotes that open each chapter. Each targets to shoot for as they read and study. chapter includes a detailed, often lengthy summary Multiple Choice Assessments assess mastery of with headings and subheadings directly parallel to the content. These assessments are mapped those in the chapter. The summaries are designed to to learning outcomes, and students can take facilitate both the review and location of related text the multiple-choice posttests as many times discussion. Finally, each chapter (or part) concludes as they want. Not only do these assessments with suggested criteria for evaluating the associated provide overall scores for each outcome, but task and with an example of the task produced by they also explain why responses to particular a former introductory educational research student. items are correct or incorrect. Full-length articles, reprinted from the educational Study Material: Review, Practice, and research literature, appear at the ends of all chapters Enrichment give students a deeper presenting research methods and serve as illustra- understanding of what they do and do not tions of “real-life” research using that methodology. know related to topic content. This material includes activities that include hints and feedback. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstra- A number of supplementary materials are available tion of this exciting new online teaching resource. to complement the text: The following resources are available for in- structors to download at www.pearsonhighered MyEducationLab.com/educators: Prepare with the Power of Practice MyEducationLab is an online learning tool that pro- Online Instructor’s Manual vides contextualized interactive exercises and other resources designed to help develop the knowledge with Test Bank and MyTest and skills researchers need. All of the activities and The Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank contains exercises in MyEducationLab are built around essen- suggested activities, strategies for teaching each tial learning outcomes. The website provides opportu- chapter, selected resources, and test items. Sug- nities to both study course content and to practice the gestions are based on personal experience with skills needed to understand and carry out research. teaching the course and conducting research. In For each topic covered in the course, students addition, the more than 700 test items represent a will find most or all of the following features and variety of levels of multiple-choice items. New test resources: items have been added to reflect text additions. Of- Assignments and Activities Designed to enhance fered along with the Instructor’s Manual with Test student understanding of concepts covered Bank is the Pearson MyTest, a powerful assessment viii PREFACE generation program that helps instructors easily A few words of thanks are in order here. For the create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and past 15 years I have been fortunate to work with tests are authored online, allowing flexibility and Kevin Davis, Vice President and Publisher at Pear- the ability to efficiently create and print assessments son. Kevin gave me my textbook start in 1997 when anytime, anywhere. Instructors can access Pearson he offered me a contract to write Action Research: MyTest and their test bank files by going to www. A Guide for the Teacher Researcher (now in its pearsonmytest.com to log in, register, or request fourth edition). Kevin has taught me a great deal access. MyTest also enables instructors to easily about writing, and I will always be indebted to him convert the test bank into BlackBoard and WebCT for trusting me with stewardship of this wonderful formats. text. I am particularly thankful to Kevin for step- ping in to take over the production of the text late in the process, and as usual, will benefit from his Online PowerPoint Slides selection of a cover for the text! PowerPoint® slides include key concept summaries Also at Pearson, Christina Robb ably shepherded and other graphic aids to help students understand, the manuscript through development and produc- organize, and remember core concepts and ideas. tion, kept me from falling behind, pushed me to think critically about Digital Research Tools for the 21st Century, and helped me see the light at the end of Computer Simulation Software the tunnel. An author does not take on the task of a Simulations in Educational Psychology and Research, major revision of a text of this magnitude without the version 2.1 (0-13-113717-4), features five psycholog- commitment and support of excellent editors. Kevin ical/educational interactive experiments on a CD- and Christie were instrumental in the development of ROM. Exercises and readings help students explore this edition and I sincerely thank them for their pro- the research concepts and procedures connected to fessionalism, patience, caring, and sense of humor. these experiments. Qualitative and quantitative de- I believe that I have made a positive contribu- signs are included. Instructors should contact their tion to this text, now my third edition, and added local Pearson sales representatives to order a copy to the wisdom of earlier editions by L. R. Gay and of these simulations. Peter Airasian. Long-time users of the text will still “hear” Lorrie Gay’s voice throughout the text, but increasingly there is an Aussie accent and sense of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS humor creeping its way into the pages! I wish to thank my friend and colleague I sincerely thank everyone who provided input Dr. Ken Kempner (Southern Oregon University) for the development of this edition. The following for his thoughtful work on revising the descriptive individuals made thoughtful and detailed sugges- and inferential statistics chapters and feedback on tions and comments for improving the tenth edition: other quantitative chapters in the text. Anne E. Cook, University of Utah; Steven Harris, Finally, I want to thank my best friend and wife, Tarleton State University; Beverly M. Klecker, More- Dr. Donna Mills, and my son, Jonathan, for their head State University; Larry R. Price, Texas State love, support, and patience. Their commitment to University; Graham B. Stead, Cleveland State Univer- my work is always appreciated and never taken for sity. These reviewers contributed greatly to the tenth granted. The completion of this edition signals a new edition and their efforts are very much appreciated. era in my life as my son Jonathan starts his college This edition benefited from the efforts of two career and Donna and I consider an “empty nest.” I editors: Kevin Davis and Paul Smith. Paul Smith suggested to Jonathan that one day he may want to (Vice President/Editor-in-Chief, Pearson Teacher take over my books. It is safe to say that he was less Education) took over the editor’s role from Kevin, than excited by the prospect—perhaps I should try and then relinquished the role when he changed again once he completes his undergraduate degree! jobs late in the development process. Fortunately for me, Kevin was waiting in the wings to finish the Geoff Mills development and production of the tenth edition. Southern Oregon University Brief Contents Part I INTRODUCTION Part IV QUALITATIVE METHODS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 14 QUALITATIVE DATA TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3 COLLECTION 381 CHAPTER 2 SELECTING AND DEFINING CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 399 A RESEARCH TOPIC 61 CHAPTER 16 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 421 CHAPTER 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 79 CHAPTER 17 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 443 CHAPTER 4 PREPARING AND CHAPTER 18 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: EVALUATING A RESEARCH PLAN 111 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 465 CHAPTER 5 SELECTING A SAMPLE 129 Part V MIXED METHODS CHAPTER 6 SELECTING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 149 CHAPTER 19 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND Part II QUANTITATIVE METHODS QUANTITATIVE METHODS 481 CHAPTER 7 SURVEY RESEARCH 183 Part VI ACTION RESEARCH CHAPTER 8 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 203 CHAPTER 20 ACTION RESEARCH 507 CHAPTER 9 CAUSAL–COMPARATIVE RESEARCH 227 Part VII REPORTING RESEARCH CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 249 CHAPTER 21 PREPARING A RESEARCH CHAPTER 11 SINGLE-SUBJECT REPORT 531 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293 Part VIII CRITIQUING RESEARCH Part III QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER 22 EVALUATING A RESEARCH CHAPTER 12 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 319 REPORT 555 CHAPTER 13 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 341 ix This page intentionally left blank Contents PART I INTRODUCTION Sources of Research Topics 62 Narrowing the Topic 65 Characteristics of Good Topics 65 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Stating the Research Topic 66 TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3 Developing Research Questions 67 Tasks 1A, 1B 3 Formulating and Stating a Hypothesis 69 Task 1C 3 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses Welcome! 3 in Quantitative Studies 70 The Scientific Method 4 Types of Hypotheses 71 Limitations of the Scientific Method 5 Stating the Hypothesis 72 Application of the Scientific Method in Education 5 Testing the Hypothesis 73 Different Approaches to Educational Research 6 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses The Continuum of Research Philosophies 6 in Qualitative Studies 73 Quantitative Research 7 Summary 75 Qualitative Research 7 Classification of Research by Method 9 CHAPTER 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 79 Quantitative Approaches 9 Task 2A 79 Qualitative Approaches 12 Task 2B 79 The Qualitative Research Process 15 Review of Related Literature: Purpose Characteristics of Qualitative Research 16 and Scope 79 Classification of Research by Purpose 16 Qualitative Research and the Review Basic and Applied Research 16 of Related Literature 81 Evaluation Research 17 Identifying Keywords, and Identifying, Evaluating, Research and Development (R&D) 17 and Annotating Sources 82 Action Research 18 Identifying Keywords 82 Guidelines for Classification 18 Identifying Your Sources 82 The Ethics of Educational Research 19 Evaluating Your Sources 93 Informed Consent and Protection from Harm 21 Annotating Your Sources 96 Deception 22 Analyzing, Organizing, and Reporting the Literature 99 Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 22 Meta-Analysis 100 Ethical Guideposts 23 Summary 102 Gaining Entry to the Research Site 25 Performance Criteria Task 2 (A and B) 105 Summary 28 Task 2 Example 106 Performance Criteria Task 1 32 Tasks 1A and 1B 32 CHAPTER 4 PREPARING AND EVALUATING Task 1C 32 A RESEARCH PLAN 111 Task 1A Quantitative Example 33 Task 1B Qualitative Example 51 Task 3A 111 Task 3B 111 Definition and Purpose of a Research Plan 111 CHAPTER 2 SELECTING AND DEFINING Components of the Quantitative Research Plan 112 A RESEARCH TOPIC 61 Introduction Section 113 The Research Topic 61 Method Section 113 Identifying a Research Topic 62 Data Analysis 115 xi xii CONTENTS Time Schedule 115 Test Selection, Construction, and Administration 169 Budget 116 Selecting a Test 169 Components of the Qualitative Research Plan 116 Sources of Test Information 170 Prior Fieldwork 116 Selecting from Alternatives 172 Title 116 Constructing Tests 173 Introduction Section 117 Test Administration 174 Research Procedures Section 118 Summary 176 Appendixes 121 Performance Criteria Task 5 179 Revising and Improving the Research Plan 121 Task 5 Example 180 Summary 122 Performance Criteria Task 3 124 Task 3 Example 125 PART II QUANTITATIVE METHODS CHAPTER 5 SELECTING A SAMPLE 129 CHAPTER 7 SURVEY RESEARCH 183 Task 4A 129 Task 6A 184 Task 4B 129 Survey Research: Definition and Purpose 184 Sampling in Quantitative Research 130 Survey Research Design 184 Defining a Population 130 Cross-Sectional Surveys 184 Selecting a Random Sample 131 Longitudinal Surveys 185 Determining Sample Size 138 Conducting Survey Research 185 Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias 139 Conducting a Questionnaire Study 186 Selecting a Nonrandom Sample 140 Administering the Questionnaire 190 Sampling in Qualitative Research 142 Summary 196 Selecting Research Participants: Purposive Task 7A Quantitative Example 198 Sampling Approaches 142 Determining Sample Size 142 Summary 144 CHAPTER 8 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 203 Performance Criteria Task 4 146 Task 6B 203 Task 4A Example 147 Correlational Research: Definition and Purpose 204 The Correlational Research Process 205 CHAPTER 6 SELECTING MEASURING Problem Selection 205 INSTRUMENTS 149 Participant and Instrument Selection 205 Task 5 149 Design and Procedure 205 Vignette 150 Data Analysis and Interpretation 206 Constructs 150 Relationship Studies 209 Variables 150 Data Collection 209 Measurement Scales and Variables 151 Data Analysis and Interpretation 210 Quantitative and Qualitative Variables 152 Prediction Studies 212 Dependent and Independent Variables 152 Data Collection 213 Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 153 Data Analysis and Interpretation 213 Instrument Terminology 154 Other Correlation-Based Analyses 214 Quantitative and Qualitative Data Problems to Consider in Interpreting Collection Methods 154 Correlation Coefficients 215 Interpreting Instrument Data 154 Summary 216 Types of Measuring Instruments 155 Task 8A Quantitative Example 219 Cognitive Tests 155 Affective Tests 156 CHAPTER 9 CAUSAL–COMPARATIVE Projective Tests 159 RESEARCH 227 Criteria for Good Measuring Instruments 160 Task 6C 227 Validity of Measuring Instruments 160 Causal–Comparative Research: Definition Reliability of Measuring Instruments 164 and Purpose 228  CONTENTS xiii The Causal–Comparative Research Process 231 The Mean 323 Design and Procedure 231 The Median 323 Control Procedures 232 The Mode 324 Data Analysis and Interpretation 233 Deciding Among Mean, Median, and Mode 324 Summary 235 Measures of Variability 325 The Range 325 CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 249 The Quartile Deviation 325 Variance 325 Task 6D 249 The Standard Deviation 326 Experimental Research: Definition and Purpose 250 The Normal Curve 326 The Experimental Process 251 Measures of Relative Position 329 Manipulation and Control 252 Measures of Relationship 332 Threats to Experimental Validity 253 Graphing Data 334 Threats to Internal Validity 254 Postscript 335 Threats to External Validity 257 Summary 336 Group Experimental Designs 262 Control of Extraneous Variables 262 Types of Group Designs 264 CHAPTER 13 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 341 Single-Variable Designs 264 Factorial Designs 272 Task 7 341 Summary 275 Concepts Underlying Inferential Statistics 341 Standard Error 342 Hypothesis Testing 344 CHAPTER 11 SINGLE-SUBJECT Tests of Significance 344 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests 345 Task 6E 293 Type I and Type II Errors 347 Single-Subject Experimental Designs 294 Degrees of Freedom 349 Single-Subject Versus Group Designs 294 Selecting Among Tests of Significance 350 The Single-Variable Rule 295 The t Test 351 Types of Single-Subject Designs 295 Analysis of Variance 357 Data Analysis and Interpretation 300 Multiple Regression 361 Threats to Validity 300 Chi Square 364 External Validity 300 Other Investigative Techniques: Data Mining, Internal Validity 301 Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation Replication 302 Modeling 367 Summary 303 Types of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Tests 368 Performance Criteria Task 6 305 Summary 370 Task 6 Examples 306 Performance Criteria Task 7 374 Task 7 Example 375 PART III QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS PART IV QUALITATIVE METHODS CHAPTER 12 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 319 The Word Is “Statistics,” not “Sadistics” 319 The Language of Statistics 320 CHAPTER 14 QUALITATIVE DATA Preparing Data for Analysis 320 COLLECTION 381 Scoring Procedures 320 Data Collection Sources and Techniques 381 Tabulation and Coding Procedures 320 Observing 381 Types of Descriptive Statistics 322 Interviewing 386 Frequencies 322 Questionnaires 388 Measures of Central Tendency 323 Examining Records 389 xiv CONTENTS Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research 391 Characteristics of Case Study Research 445 Validity in Qualitative Research 391 Case Study Research Design 446 Reliability in Qualitative Research 395 Sample Selection in Case Study Research 448 Getting Started 395 Data Collection Techniques 448 Summary 396 Conducting and Analyzing Multiple Case Studies 449 Summary 452 Task 8-C Qualitative Example 454 CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 399 Task 8A 399 Narrative Research: Definition and Purpose 400 CHAPTER 18 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Types of Narrative Research 401 DATA ANALYSIS Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative 402 AND INTERPRETATION 465 The Narrative Research Process 402 Data Analysis and Interpretation: Definition Key Characteristics of Narrative Research 404 and Purpose 465 Narrative Research Techniques 404 Data Analysis During Data Collection 466 Restorying 405 Data Analysis After Data Collection 466 Oral History 406 Steps in Analyzing Qualitative Research Data 467 Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes, Reading/Memoing 468 and Other Artifacts 406 Describing 468 Storytelling 406 Classifying 468 Letter Writing 406 Data Analysis Strategies 468 Autobiographical and Biographical Writing 407 Example of Coding an Interview 470 Other Narrative Data Sources 407 Developing a Concept Map 472 Writing the Narrative 407 Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example 473 Summary 408 Data Interpretation Strategies 476 Task 8-A Qualitative Example 410 Ensuring Credibility in Your Study 477 Summary 478 CHAPTER 16 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 421 Task 8B 421 Ethnographic Research: Definition and Purpose 423 PART V MIXED METHODS The Ethnographic Research Process 423 Key Characteristics of Ethnographic Research 425 CHAPTER 19 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: Types of Ethnographic Research 426 INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE Ethnographic Research Techniques 426 AND QUANTITATIVE Triangulation 427 METHODS 481 Participant Observation 427 Task 8D 481 Field Notes 429 Mixed Methods Research: Definition and Purpose 483 Observing and Recording Everything Types of Mixed Methods Research Designs 484 You Possibly Can 431 The QUAL–Quan Model 484 Looking for Nothing in Particular; Looking for Bumps and Paradoxes 432 The QUAN–Qual Model 485 Summary 434 The QUAN–QUAL Model 486 Task 8B Qualitative Example 436 Data Analysis in Mixed Methods Designs 486 Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs 488 Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study 489 CHAPTER 17 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 443 Summary 490 Task 8C 443 Performance Criteria Task 8 492 Case Study Research: Definition and Purpose 444 Task 8 Example 493 When to Use the Case Study Research Approach 445 Task 8D Mixed Methods Example 496  CONTENTS xv PART VI ACTION RESEARCH Formatting Theses and Dissertations 534 Preliminary Pages 535 The Main Body 536 CHAPTER 20 ACTION RESEARCH 507 Writing for Journal Publication 538 Task 9 507 Summary 540 Action Research: Definition and Purpose 508 Performance Criteria Task 10 542 Key Characteristics of Action Research 508 Task 10 Example 543 Action Research Is Persuasive and Authoritative 509 Action Research Is Relevant 509 Action Research Is Accessible 509 PART VIII CRITIQUING RESEARCH Action Research Challenges the Intractability of Reform of the Educational System 509 CHAPTER 22 EVALUATING A RESEARCH Action Research Is Not a Fad 510 REPORT 555 Types of Action Research 510 Tasks 11 555 Critical Action Research 510 General Evaluation Criteria 555 Practical Action Research 511 Introduction 556 Levels of Action Research 511 Method 557 The Action Research Process 512 Results 557 Identifying and Gaining Insight into an Area of Focus 513 Discussion (Conclusions and Recommendations) 558 Collecting, Analyzing, and Interpreting Data 514 Abstract or Summary 558 Action Planning 515 Type-Specific Evaluation Criteria 558 Summary 516 Survey Research 558 Performance Criteria and Examples Task 9 518 Correlational Research 558 Write an Area-of-Focus Statement 518 Causal–Comparative Research 559 Define the Variables 518 Experimental Research 559 Develop Research Questions 518 Single-Subject Research 559 Describe the Intervention or Innovation 518 Qualitative Research (In General) 559 Describe the Membership of the Action Evaluating Validity and Reliability Research Group 519 in Qualitative Studies 560 Describe Negotiations That Need Narrative Research 560 to Be Undertaken 519 Ethnographic Research 560 Develop a Timeline 519 Case Study Research 561 Develop a Statement of Resources 519 Mixed Methods Research 561 Develop Data Collection Ideas 519 Action Research 561 Task 9 Action Research Example 521 Summary 562 Performance Criteria Task 11 564 Task 11 Example 565 PART VII REPORTING RESEARCH Appendix A Reference Tables 577 Appendix B Statistical References 593 CHAPTER 21 PREPARING A RESEARCH Appendix C Suggested Responses 617 REPORT 531 Glossary 623 Task 10 531 Name Index 635 Guidelines for Writing a Research Report 532 Format and Style 533 Subject Index 637 This page intentionally left blank Research Articles CHAPTER 1 Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk of School Failure? 33 Developing Teacher Epistemological Sophistication About Multicultural Curriculum: A Case Study 51 CHAPTER 7 To What Extent Are Literacy Initiatives Being Supported: Important Questions for Administrators 198 CHAPTER 8 Parental Involvement and Its Influence on the Reading Achievement of 6th Grade Students 219 CHAPTER 9 Comparing Longitudinal Academic Achievement of Full-Day and Half-Day Kindergarten Students 237 CHAPTER 10 Effects of Mathematical Word Problem–Solving Instruction on Middle School Students with Learning Problems 279 CHAPTER 11 Effects of Functional Mobility Skills Training for Young Students with Physical Disabilities 308 CHAPTER 15 For Whom the School Bell Tolls: Conflicting Voices Inside an Alternative High School 410 CHAPTER 16 Preparing Preservice Teachers in a Diverse World 436 CHAPTER 17 Using Community as a Resource for Teacher Education: A Case Study 454 CHAPTER 19 How Should Middle-School Students with LD Approach Online Note Taking? A Mixed-Methods Study 496 CHAPTER 20 “Let’s Talk”: Discussions in a Biology Classroom: An Action Research Project 521 CHAPTER 22 Gender and Race as Variables in Psychosocial Adjustment to Middle and High School 565 xvii This page intentionally left blank EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH  C H A P T E R ON E Back to the Future Part III, 1990 “Despite a popular stereotype that depicts researchers as spectacled, stoop-shouldered, elderly gentlemen who endlessly add chemicals to test tubes, every day thousands of men and women of all ages, shapes, and sizes conduct educational research in a wide variety of settings.” (p. 4) Introduction to Educational Research LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to do the following: 1. Briefly describe the reasoning involved in the scientific method. 2. Describe the different approaches to educational research. 3. Briefly define and state the major characteristics of these research approaches: survey, correlational, causal–comparative, experimental, single-subject, narrative, ethnographic, and case study. 4. Identify and differentiate among research purposes, including basic research, applied research, evaluation research, research and development (R&D), and action research. 5. Recognize the ethical obligations that educational researchers have and describe the codes and procedures they follow to ensure they adhere to them. Completing Chapter 1 should enable you to perform the following tasks: TASKS 1A, 1B Identify and briefly state the following for both research studies at the end of this chapter: 1. The topic (purpose of the study) 2. The procedures 3. The method of analysis 4. The major conclusions (See Performance Criteria, p. 32.) TASK 1C Classify given research studies based on their characteristics and purposes. (See Performance Criteria, p. 32.) WELCOME! If you are taking a research course because it is required in your program of studies, raise your right hand. If you are taking a research course because it seems like it will be a really fun elective, raise your left hand. We thought you may not be here of your own free will. Although you may be required to take this course, you are not the innocent 3 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH victim of one or more sadists. Your professors have understand our world. For example, a child who several legitimate reasons for believing this research touches something hot learns that high heat hurts. course is an essential component of your education. We know other things because a trusted authority, First, educational research findings significantly such as a parent or a teacher, told us about them. contribute to both educational theory and educational Most likely, much of your knowledge of current practice. As a professional, you need to know how world events comes secondhand, from things you to find, understand, and evaluate these findings. And have read or heard from a source you trust. when you encounter research findings in professional Another way we come to know something is publications or in the media, you have a responsibil- through thinking, through reasoning. Reasoning re- ity, as a professional, to distinguish between legitimate fers to the process of using logical thought to reach and ill-founded research claims. Second, although a conclusion. We can reason inductively or deduc- many of you will be primarily critical consumers of re- tively. Inductive reasoning involves developing search, some of you will decide to become educational generalizations based on observation of a limited researchers. A career in research opens the door to a number of related events or experiences. Consider variety of employment opportunities in universities, in the following example of inductive reasoning: research centers, and in business and industry. Observation: An instructor examines five research Despite a popular stereotype that depicts re- textbooks. Each contains a chapter about searchers as spectacled, stoop-shouldered, elderly sampling. gentlemen (a stereotype I am rapidly approaching!) Generalization: The instructor concludes that who endlessly add chemicals to test tubes, every all research textbooks contain a chapter about day thousands of men and women of all ages and sampling. postures conduct educational research in a wide variety of settings. Every year many millions of dol- Deductive reasoning involves essentially the lars are spent in the quest for knowledge related reverse process—arriving at specific conclusions to teaching and learning. For example, in 2009 the based on general principles, observations, or ex- federal government allocated $100 billion dollars periences (i.e., generalizations)—as shown in the to be spent on education (including educational re- next example. search and evaluation) as part of the American Re- Observations: All research textbooks contain a investment and Recovery Act (ARRA). Educational chapter on sampling. The book you are reading research has contributed many findings concerning is a research text. principles of behavior, learning, and retention of Generalization: This book must contain a chapter knowledge—many of which can also be applied to on sampling. (Does it?) curriculum, instruction, instructional materials, and assessment techniques. Both the quantity and the Although people commonly use experience, quality of research are increasing, partly because authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive rea- researchers are better trained. Educational research soning to learn new things and draw new con- classes have become core components of preser- clusions from that knowledge, each of these vice teacher education programs, as well as the approaches to understanding has limitations when cornerstone of advanced degree programs. used in isolation. Some problems associated with We recognize that educational research is a rel- experience and authority as sources of knowledge atively unfamiliar discipline for many of you. Our are graphically illustrated in a story told about first goals, then, are to help you acquire a general Aristotle. According to the story, one day Aristotle understanding of research processes and to help caught a fly and carefully counted and recounted you develop the perspective of a researcher. We the legs. He then announced that flies have five begin by examining the scientific method. legs. No one questioned the word of Aristotle. For years his finding was accepted uncritically. Unfor- THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD tunately, the fly that Aristotle caught just happened to be missing a leg! Whether or not you believe What is knowledge? And how do we come to the story, it illustrates the limitations of relying on “know” something? Experience is certainly one of personal experience and authority as sources of the fundamental ways we come to know about and knowledge.  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 5 The story also points out a potential problem the environments under study. Although some appli- with inductive reasoning: Generalizing from a small cations of the method lead to deeper understanding sample, especially one that is atypical, can lead to er- of the research context than others, no application rors. Deductive reasoning, too, is limited by the evi- and in fact no research approach provides full com- dence in the original observations. If every research prehension of a site and its inhabitants. No matter text really does have a chapter on sampling, and if how many variables one studies or how long one is this book really is a research text, then it follows immersed in a research context, other variables and that this book must have a chapter on sampling. aspects of context will remain unexamined. Thus, However, if one or more of the premises is false the scientific method and, indeed, all types of in- (perhaps some research texts do not have a chapter quiry give us a simplified version of reality. on sampling), your conclusion may also be wrong. Third, our measuring instruments always have When we rely exclusively on these common some degree of error. The variables we study are approaches to knowing, the resulting knowledge often proxies for the real behavior we seek to ex- is susceptible to error and may be of limited value amine. For example, even if we use a very precisely to understanding the world beyond our immediate constructed multiple-choice test to assess a person’s experience. However, experience, authority, and values, we will likely gather information that gives inductive and deductive reasoning are very effec- us a picture of that person’s beliefs about his or her tive when used together as integral components of values. However, we aren’t likely to have an ad- the scientific method. The scientific method is an equate picture of how that person acts, which may orderly process entailing a number of steps: rec- be the better reflection of the person’s real values. ognition and definition of a problem; formulation More broadly, all educational inquiry, not of hypotheses; collection of data; analysis of data; just the scientific method, is carried out with the and statement of conclusions regarding confirma- cooperation of participants who agree to pro- tion or disconfirmation of the hypotheses (i.e., a vide researchers with data. Because educational researcher forms a hypothesis—an explanation for researchers deal with human beings, they must the occurrence of certain behaviors, phenomena, consider a number of ethical concerns and respon- or events—as a way of predicting the results of a sibilities to the participants. For example, they must research study and then collects data to test that shelter participants from real or potential harm. prediction). These steps can be applied informally They must inform participants about the nature of to solve such everyday problems as the most ef- the planned research and address the expectations ficient route to take from home to work or school, of the participants. These things can limit and skew the best time to go to the bank, or the best kind of results. All these limitations will be addressed in computer to purchase. The more formal application later sections of this book. of the scientific method is standard in research; it is more efficient and more reliable than relying solely Application of the Scientific on experience, authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning as sources of knowledge. Method in Education Research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of problems; Limitations of the Scientific Method educational research is the formal, systematic ap- The steps in the scientific method guide researchers plication of the scientific method to the study of in planning, conducting, and interpreting research educational problems. The goal of educational re- studies. However, it is important to recognize search is essentially the same as the goal of all some limitations of the method. First, the scientific science: to describe, explain, predict, or control method cannot answer all questions. For example, phenomena—in this case, educational phenomena. applying the scientific method will not resolve the As we mentioned previously, it can be quite difficult question “Should we legalize euthanasia?” The an- to describe, explain, predict, and control situations swers to questions like this one are influenced by involving human beings, who are by far the most personal philosophy, values, and ethics. complex of all organisms. So many factors, known Second, application of the scientific method can and unknown, operate in any educational environ- never capture the full richness of the individuals and ment that it can be extremely difficult to identify 6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH specific causes of behaviors or to generalize or rep- research hypothesis was supported or not. For licate findings. The kinds of rigid controls that can studies involving verbal synthesis, conclusions be established and maintained in a biochemistry are much more tentative. laboratory, for instance, are impossible in an edu- cational setting. Even describing behaviors, based on observing people, has limits. Observers may be subjective in recording behaviors, and people who DIFFERENT APPROACHES are observed may behave atypically just because TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH they are being watched. Chemical reactions, on All educational inquiry ultimately involves a deci- the other hand, are certainly not aware of being sion to study or describe something—to ask some observed! Nevertheless, behavioral research should question and seek an answer. All educational in- not be viewed as less scientific than natural science quiry necessitates that data of some kind be col- research conducted in a lab. lected, that the data be analyzed in some way, Despite the difficulty and complexity of apply- and that the researcher come to some conclusion ing the scientific method in educational settings, or interpretation. In other words, all educational the steps of the scientific method used by educa- inquiry shares the same four basic actions we find tional researchers are the same as those used by in the scientific method. However, it is not accurate researchers in other more easily controlled settings: to say that all educational research is an application of the scientific method. Important differences exist 1. Selection and definition of a problem. A between the types of questions researchers ask, the problem is a question of interest that can be types of data they collect, the form of data analysis, tested or answered through the collection and and the conclusions that the researcher can draw analysis of data. Upon identifying a research meaningfully and with validity. question, researchers typically review previously published research on the same topic and use that information to hypothesize about the The Continuum results. In other words, they make an educated of Research Philosophies guess as to the answer to the question. Historically, educational researchers used ap- 2. Execution of research procedures. The proaches that involved the use of the scientific procedures reflect all the activities involved method. However, over the last three decades, in collecting data related to the problem researchers have adopted diverse philosophies to- (e.g., how data are collected and from whom). ward their research. Now, there are certain philo- To a great extent, the specific procedures sophical assumptions that underpin an educational are dictated by the research question and the researcher’s decision to conduct research. These variables involved in the study. philosophical assumptions address issues related 3. Analysis of data. Data are analyzed in a way to the nature of reality (ontology), how research- that permits the researcher to test the research ers know what they know (epistemology), and the hypothesis or answer the research question. methods used to study a particular phenomenon Analysis usually involves application of one or (methodology). As Creswell1 notes, historically, more statistical technique. For some studies, data researchers compared the philosophical assump- analysis involves verbal synthesis of narrative tions that underpinned qualitative and quantita- data; these studies typically involve new insights tive research approaches in order to establish the about the phenomena in question, generate legitimacy of qualitative research, but given the hypotheses for future research, or both. evolution of qualitative and quantitative research 4. Drawing and stating conclusions. The over the past three decades, there is no longer any conclusions, which should advance our need to justify one set of philosophical assumptions general knowledge of the topic in question, over another set of assumptions. are based on the results of data analysis. They should be stated in terms of the original 1 Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: hypothesis or research question. Conclusions Choosing Among Five Approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, should indicate, for example, whether the CA: Sage.  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 7 Educational researchers have also followed In the last 20 to 30 years, however, nonquan- well-defined, widely accepted procedures for stat- titative approaches to educational research have ing research topics, carrying out the research pro- emerged. Qualitative research now has as many cess, analyzing the resulting data, and verifying research practitioners as quantitative research. At the quality of the study and its conclusions. Often, the end of this chapter you will find an example of these research procedures are based on what has qualitative research published in Action in Teacher come to be known as a quantitative approach to Education (a refereed journal): “Developing Teacher conducting and obtaining educational understand- Epistemological Sophistication About Multicultural ings. The quantitative framework in educational Curriculum: A Case Study” (Sleeter, 2009). This re- research involves the application of the scientific search investigates how teachers’ thinking about method to try to answer questions about educa- curriculum develops during a teacher preparation tion. At the end of this chapter you will find an ex- program and how the lessons from the case study ample of quantitative research published in Child might inform teacher education pedagogy. And of Development (a refereed journal): “Can Instruc- course, the use of the word “epistemological” in the tional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade title introduces you to the language of educational Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk research! of School Failure?” (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). As this title suggests, this research investigates the ways Qualitative Research in which children’s risk of school failure may be moderated by instructional and emotional support Qualitative research is the collection, analysis, from teachers. and interpretation of comprehensive narrative and visual (i.e., nonnumerical) data to gain insights into a particular phenomenon of interest. Qualitative Quantitative Research research methods are based on different beliefs Quantitative research is the collection and analy- and designed for different purposes than quanti- sis of numerical data to describe, explain, pre- tative research methods. For example, qualitative dict, or control phenomena of interest. However, researchers do not necessarily accept the view of a quantitative research approach entails more than a stable, coherent, uniform world. They argue that just the use of numerical data. At the outset of a all meaning is situated in a particular perspective or study, quantitative researchers state the hypotheses context, and because different people and groups to be examined and specify the research proce- often have different perspectives and contexts, the dures that will be used to carry out the study. They world has many different meanings, none of which also maintain control over contextual factors that is necessarily more valid or true than another. may interfere with the data collection and identify Qualitative research problems and methods tend a sample of participants large enough to provide to evolve as understanding of the research context statistically meaningful data. Many quantitative re- and participants deepens (think back to the discus- searchers have little personal interaction with the sion of inductive reasoning). As a result, qualitative participants they study because they frequently researchers often avoid stating hypotheses before collect data using paper-and-pencil, noninteractive data are collected, and they may examine a particu- instruments. lar phenomenon without a guiding statement about Underlying quantitative research methods is what may or may not be true about that phenome- the philosophical belief or assumption that we non or its context. However, qualitative researchers inhabit a relatively stable, uniform, and coherent do not enter a research setting without any idea of world that we can measure, understand, and gen- what they intend to study. Rather, they commence eralize about. This view, adopted from the natural their research with “foreshadowed problems.”2 This sciences, implies that the world and the laws that difference is important—quantitative research usu- govern it are somewhat predictable and can be ally tests a specific hypothesis; qualitative research understood by scientific research and examination. often does not. In this quantitative perspective, claims about the world are not considered meaningful unless they 2 Argonauts of the Western Pacific (p. 9), by B. Malinowski, 1922, can be verified through direct observation. London: Routledge. 8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Additionally, in qualitative research, context is exist naturally, help in part to explain the growing not controlled or manipulated by the researcher. enthusiasm for qualitative research in education. The effort to understand the participants’ perspec- Some researchers and educators feel that certain tive requires researchers using qualitative methods kinds of educational problems and questions do to interact extensively and intimately with partici- not lend themselves well to quantitative methods, pants during the study, using time-intensive data which use principally numerical analysis and try to collection methods such as interviews and observa- control variables in very complex environments. As tions. As a result, the number of participants tends qualitative researchers point out, findings should to be small, and qualitative researchers analyze the be derived from research conducted in real-world data inductively by categorizing and organizing it settings to have relevance to real-world settings. into patterns that produce a descriptive, narrative Table 1.1 provides an overview of quantita- synthesis. tive and qualitative research characteristics. De- Qualitative research differs from quantitative spite the differences between them, you should research in two additional ways: (1) Qualitative not consider quantitative and qualitative research research often involves the simultaneous collec- to be oppositional. Taken together, they represent tion of a wealth of narrative and visual data over the full range of educational research methods. an extended period of time, and (2) as much as is The terms quantitative and qualitative are used possible, data collection occurs in a naturalistic set- to differentiate one approach from the other con- ting. In quantitative studies, in contrast, research veniently. If you see yourself as a positivist—the is most often conducted in researcher-controlled belief that qualities of natural phenomena must be environments under researcher-controlled condi- verified by evidence before they can be considered tions, and the activities of data collection, analysis, knowledge—that does not mean you cannot use and writing are separate, discrete activities. Be- or learn from qualitative research methods. The cause qualitative researchers strive to study things same holds true for nonpositivist, phenomenologist in their naturalistic settings, qualitative research is qualitative researchers. Depending on the nature of sometimes referred to as naturalistic research, natu- the question, topic, or problem to be investigated, ralistic inquiry, or field-oriented research. one of these approaches will generally be more ap- These two characteristics of qualitative research, propriate than the other, although selecting a pri- the simultaneous study of many aspects of a phe- mary approach does not preclude borrowing from nomenon and the attempt to study things as they the other. In fact, both may be utilized in the same TABLE 1.1 Overview of qualitative and quantitative research characteristics Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Type of data collected Numerical data Nonnumerical narrative and visual data Research problem Hypothesis and research procedures stated Research problems and methods evolve before beginning the study as understanding of topic deepens Manipulation of context Yes No Sample size Larger Smaller Research procedures Relies on statistical procedures Relies on categorizing and organizing data into patterns to produce a descriptive, narrative synthesis Participant interaction Little interaction Extensive interaction Underlying belief We live in a stable and predictable world that Meaning is situated in a particular we can measure, understand, and generalize perspective or context that is different about. for people and groups; therefore, the world has many meanings.  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 9 studies, as when the administration of a (quantita- own measuring instrument for each survey study. tive) questionnaire is followed by a small number Constructing questions for the intended respon- of detailed (qualitative) interviews to obtain deeper dents requires clarity, consistency, and tact. Other explanations for the numerical data. major challenges facing survey researchers are participants’ failure to return questionnaires, their willingness to be surveyed over the phone, and CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH their ability to attend scheduled interviews. If the BY METHOD response rate is low, then valid, trustworthy con- clusions cannot be drawn. For example, suppose A research method comprises the overall strategy you are doing a study to determine attitudes of followed in collecting and analyzing data. Although principals toward research in their schools. You there is some overlap, most research studies follow send a questionnaire to 100 principals and include a readily identifiable strategy. The largest distinc- the question “Do you usually cooperate if your tion we can make in classifying research by method school is asked to participate in a research study?” is the distinction between quantitative and qualita- Forty principals respond, and they all answer “Yes.” tive research. Quantitative and qualitative research, It’s certainly a mistake to conclude that principals in turn, include several distinct types or methods, in general cooperate. Although all those who re- each designed to answer a different kind of re- sponded said yes, those 60 principals who did not search question. respond may never cooperate with researchers. After all, they didn’t cooperate with you! Without Quantitative Approaches more responses, it is not possible to make gener- alizations about how principals feel about research Quantitative research approaches are applied to de- in their schools. scribe current conditions, investigate relations, and Following are examples of questions that can study cause–effect phenomena. Survey research be investigated in survey research studies, along is often designed to describe current conditions. with typical research designs. Studies that investigate the relations between two or more variables are correlational research. Ex- How do second-grade teachers spend their perimental studies and causal–comparative studies teaching time? Second-grade teachers are provide information about cause–effect outcomes. asked to fill out questionnaires, and results Studies that focus on the behavior change an indi- are presented as percentages (e.g., teachers vidual exhibits as a result of some intervention fall spent 50% of their time lecturing, 20% asking under the heading of single-subject research. or answering questions, 20% in discussion, and 10% providing individual student help). Survey Research How will citizens of Yourtown vote in the next school board election? A sample of Yourtown Survey research determines and reports the way citizens complete a questionnaire or interview, things are; it involves collecting numerical data to and results are presented as percentages test hypotheses or answer questions about the cur- (e.g., 70% said they will vote for Peter Pure, 20% rent status of the subject of study. One common named George Graft, and 10% are undecided). type of survey research involves assessing the pref- erences, attitudes, practices, concerns, or interests of a group of people. A preelection political poll Correlational Research and a survey about community members’ percep- Correlational research involves collecting data to tion of the quality of the local schools are examples. determine whether, and to what degree, a relation Survey research data are mainly collected through exists between two or more quantifiable variables. questionnaires, interviews, and observations. A variable is a placeholder that can assume any Although survey research sounds very simple, one of a range of values; for example, intelligence, there is considerably more to it than just ask- height, and test score are variables. At a minimum, ing questions and reporting answers. Because re- correlation research requires information about at searchers often ask questions that have not been least two variables obtained from a single group of asked before, they usually have to develop their participants. 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH The purpose of a correlational study may be Does an algebra aptitude test predict success to establish relations or use existing relations to in an algebra course? Scores on the algebra make predictions. For example, a college admis- aptitude test are correlated with final exam sions director may be interested in answering the scores in the algebra course. If the correlation question “How do the SAT scores of high school is high, the aptitude test is a good predictor of seniors correspond to the students’ first-semester success in algebra. college grades?” If students’ SAT scores are strongly related to their first-semester grades, SAT scores Causal–Comparative Research may be useful in predicting how students will Causal–comparative research attempts to deter- perform in their first year of college. On the other mine the cause, or reason, for existing differences hand, if there is little or no correlation between the in the behavior or status of groups of individuals. two variables, SAT scores likely will not be useful The cause is a behavior or characteristic believed as predictors. to influence some other behavior or characteris- Correlation refers to a quantitative measure tic, and is known as the grouping variable. The of the degree of correspondence. The degree to change or difference in a behavior or character- which two variables are related is expressed as istic that occurs as a result—that is, the effect—is a correlation coefficient, which is a number be- known as the dependent variable. Put simply, tween 1.00 and 1.00. Two variables that are not causal–comparative research attempts to establish related have a correlation coefficient near 0.00. Two cause–effect relations among groups. variables that are highly correlated will have a cor- Following are examples of research questions relation coefficient near 1.00 or 1.00. A number tested with causal–comparative studies (note that near 1.00 indicates a positive correlation: As one the word is causal, not casual). variable increases, the other variable also increases (e.g., students with high SAT scores may also have How does preschool attendance affect social high GPAs). A number near 1.00 indicates a nega- maturity at the end of the first grade? The tive correlation: As one variable increases, the other grouping variable is preschool attendance variable decreases (e.g., high GPA may correlate (i.e., the variable can take one of two values— negatively with likelihood of dropping out). Because students attending preschool and students not very few pairs of variables are perfectly correlated, attending); the dependent variable, or effect, is predictions based on them are rarely 1.0 or 1.0. social maturity at the end of the first grade. The It is very important to note that the results of researcher identifies a group of first graders correlational studies do not suggest cause–effect re- who attended preschool and a group who did lations among variables. Thus, a positive correlation not, gathers data about their social maturity, between, for example, self-concept and achievement and then compares the two groups. does not imply that self-concept causes achieve- How does having a working mother affect ment or that achievement causes self-concept. The a child’s school absenteeism? The grouping correlation indicates only that students with higher variable is the employment status of the mother self-concepts tend to have higher levels of achieve- (again with two possible values—the mother ment and that students with lower self-concepts works or does not work); the dependent tend to have lower levels of achievement. We can- variable is absenteeism, measured as number not conclude that one variable is the cause of the of days absent. The researcher identifies a other. group of students who have working mothers Following are examples of research questions and a group whose mothers do not work, tested with correlational studies. gathers information about their absenteeism, and compares the groups. What is the relation between intelligence and self-esteem? Scores on an intelligence test A weakness of causal–comparative studies is and a measure of self-esteem are acquired that, because the cause under study has already from each member of a given group. The two occurred, the researcher has no control over it. For sets of scores are analyzed, and the resulting example, suppose a researcher wanted to investi- coefficient indicates the degree of correlation. gate the effect of heavy smoking on lung cancer  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 11 and designs a study comparing the frequency of of the quantitative research approaches because it lung cancer diagnoses in two groups, long-time provides clear evidence for linking variables. As a smokers and nonsmokers. Because the groups are result, it also offers generalizability, or applicabil- preexisting, the researcher did not control the con- ity of findings to settings and contexts different ditions under which the participants smoked or from the one in which they were obtained. did not smoke (this lack of researcher control is Unlike causal–comparative researchers, re- why the variable is known as a grouping variable, searchers conducting an experimental study can rather than an independent variable). Perhaps a control an independent variable. They can select large number of the long-time smokers lived in a the participants for the study, divide the partici- smoggy, urban environment, whereas only a few pants into two or more groups that have similar of the nonsmokers were exposed to those condi- characteristics at the start of the research experi- tions. In that case, attempts to draw cause–effect ment,