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Introduction Tave you ever visited a place you find so strange that you feel like the actions of the Hpeople there are wrong if not downright offensive? Did you ask any of them why they do what they do? If you just walked away from that situation without trying to understand their decisions, then...

Introduction Tave you ever visited a place you find so strange that you feel like the actions of the Hpeople there are wrong if not downright offensive? Did you ask any of them why they do what they do? If you just walked away from that situation without trying to understand their decisions, then most probably, you ended up becoming judgmental of them instead of trying to understand where they are coming from, their norms, and their values included. In this chapter, we will scrutinize the enormous significance of culture in understanding the moral actions of people. In doing so, we will look at the contextual differences of societies and how these affect the moral behavior of individuals inclusive therein. In the process, we will look at the concept of cultural relativism, ultimately examining, and evaluating both its strengths and weaknesses as more and more people invoke it as their final arbiter in making moral judgments. Culture and Our Moral Behavior On January 03, 2018, CNN reported that a Nigerian man posted graphic pictures on Facebook showing children apparently going through genital mutilation (Adebayo, 2018). The post caused an outrage from his fellow Nigerians, which pressured him to take down his post, eventually apologizing for what he did. FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM) WHERE DOES IT HAPPEN? FGM is practised in 28 African countries and parts of the Middle East and Asia. It is also found in immigrant communities worldwide. THOMSON REUTERS FOUNDATION Eritrea An estimated 100 to 140 million girls and women have been subjected to FGM. In Africa, around 3 million girls are thought to undergo FGM every year. FGM is often a prerequisite for marriage, but it can cause life-long physical and psychological problems. Fig. 1. Female Genital Mutilation in Africa (Thompson Reuters Foundation, 2012) The case of female genital mutilation (fgm) is not an entirely new practice in many African countries. This is considered as a rite of passage to womanhood, CS? Ethics is based in countries including Kenya and Sierra Leone, while it is valued as a means of preserving a girl's virginity until marriage, in Sudan, Egypt, and Somalia (FGM Information, Historical and Cultural, n.d.). Although there are already a lot of reports about this, in Nigeria for example, none had been convicted for doing it even if it was already legally prohibited since 2015 (Adebayo, 2018). Female genital mutilation (FGM) comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (Female genital mutilation, 2018). Although culturally it was, and in some communities, still being viewed as an acceptable practice, multi-country study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in six African countries, showed that women who had undergone FGM, had significantly increased risks for adverse events during childbirth, and that additional one to two babies per 100 deliveries die as a result of the practice (World Health Organization, Department of Reproductive Health and Research, 2006). According to new WHO guidelines, health-care providers need to know how to: 10 Sriganization Treat the health conditions that may affect women with female genital mutilation Gynecological Obstetric Mental health Sasural complications complications dnorders dysfunction an One of the most difficult concepts in learning and understanding our moral behavior is the idea of cultural relativism. As culture and morality are intertwined, their inseparability in understanding our actions makes it even more complicated since we ought to look at cultural lenses in figuring out whether we arrived at making moral decisions or not. The case of genital mutilation has already been deemed a violation of human rights by the United Nations. Nonetheless, the practice has not been entirely extinguished in some African, and even Asian countries. Truthfully, we invoke the norms Fig. 2. FGM related complications (n.d.) of our culture in deciding whether our beautiful, or if it disgraces our cultural moral ideals. When the act is acceptable, we do not choices mirror the true, the good and the usually challenge, much less, question it. Norms refer to social and cultural regulations and decrees that govern the everyday activities of people, inclusive of its moral and ethical imperatives, customs and cultural practices (Barker, 2004). When we abide by these norms, we are considered normal, as everybody else, doing what is normative in the society. On the contrary, those who do otherwise are deemed strange, irrational, or to be blunt about it, abnormal or deviant, going against what is socially prescribed. Hence, the moral behavior of people is clearly hinged from what was ingrained to him as right, proper and acceptable in his cultural context. As this was acquired through the process of socialization, we become aware, growing up, of the many do's and don'ts, the oughts and ought nots, in our society, reflecting the upheld values of our own people. Culture is morals, law, cus society (Burke, act in varying si and perspective H Since cult material objects its impact in th makings. The Filipino In the Ph the prevailing D us adhere to re from what we h to do as indivi Filipino moral What is the topic of - Chapter Summary Although diversity of cultures is heavily encouraged, this should be exclusive of customs and traditions which disrupt normal human functioning. There still are moral absolutes which should precede cultural norms. On the other hand, as we become aware of moral standards, we need to carefully examine ourselves as well, so as not to fall prey from either becoming ethnocentric or xenocentric. Since we are all a product of our culture, our societal norms have always been the basis of our everyday decisions. However, we must be very cautious that our norms do not clash with universal values that cater to championing human life and dignity. Hence, it is crucial that we be reminded that cultural relativism should not, in any way, be used as an excuse to continue cultural practices which categorically impede, if not violate, human rights. Keywords Culture: Defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Cultural Relativism: The view that moral beliefs and practices vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of particular cultures Ethnocentrism: The practice of taking one's own people, society and culture to be the vantage point from which all else is viewed and judged. Moral Relativism: This maintains that different societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality and that there is no objective, and transcultural criteria for judging between these systems. Norms: These are the social and cultural regulations and decrees that govern the everyday activities of people, inclusive of its moral and ethical imperatives, customs and cultural practices of a culture. Xenocentrism: It is the belief that one's own cultural features are a downgrade in comparison to those of other cultures. What is the topic of - Chapter Summary Although diversity of cultures is heavily encouraged, this should be exclusive of customs and traditions which disrupt normal human functioning. There still are moral absolutes which should precede cultural norms. On the other hand, as we become aware of moral standards, we need to carefully examine ourselves as well, so as not to fall prey from either becoming ethnocentric or xenocentric. Since we are all a product of our culture, our societal norms have always been the basis of our everyday decisions. However, we must be very cautious that our norms do not clash with universal values that cater to championing human life and dignity. Hence, it is crucial that we be reminded that cultural relativism should not, in any way, be used as an excuse to continue cultural practices which categorically impede, if not violate, human rights. Keywords Culture: Defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Cultural Relativism: The view that moral beliefs and practices vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of particular cultures Ethnocentrism: The practice of taking one's own people, society and culture to be the vantage point from which all else is viewed and judged. Moral Relativism: This maintains that different societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality and that there is no objective, and transcultural criteria for judging between these systems. Norms: These are the social and cultural regulations and decrees that govern the everyday activities of people, inclusive of its moral and ethical imperatives, customs and cultural practices of a culture. Xenocentrism: It is the belief that one's own cultural features are a downgrade in comparison to those of other cultures. Na Course 3. Complacency when one is aware but is not concerned. It is an open-secret that corruption is rampant in the government. Even though we are aware of it, there are still a lot of Filipinos who do not really mind about changing the status quo by invoking their rights of suffrage, but perhaps are just so indifferent about it. 4. Rationalization. We have that instinct of justifying an act no matter how wrong it is. Students do know for a fact that cheating is bad. Still and all, if they feel like it is the only way to pass a course, then, they will rationalize the act and continue doing it until they achieve their goal. Functions of Culture Here are some of the functions of culture which are significant in understanding our moral behavior: 1. Culture provides identity to the people in the society. This is what separates communal groups from each other. They are known by their distinct traditions and beliefs that they hold dear. 1. -mid 2. Culture mirrors the laws of the land. Laws in one society is born out of the norms which are the socially acceptable behavioral patterns in the community. These norms are held with supreme importance, and so the people make sure that they are systematized and followed by all. Going against these laws are punishable in most, if not all cases. 3. Culture unifies people in ways that only those who belong in that society understands. It is always what the communal group invokes in matters of decisions, practices, and traditions. 2. Mid 4. Culture influences our concept of morality. Culture provides the rules of the games in the society through our cultural norms. It is very much prescriptive of what is morally right or wrong, what is respectful and not, affecting our patterns of behavior. It is the culture that molds, if not dictates, the values that should be adhered to by the people. 3 Mid Our moral actions are embedded in the social structures provided by the traditions of old. There is no way that we will decide without invoking our cultural moral biases. How we talk, think, and tap daily judgments is definitely carved by what we were raised to believe is morally acceptable or not. Cultural Relativism: Different Strokes for Different Folks One way of knowing which ethical views work in certain context is by understanding the cultures of different people. Though there are certain universals that everyone might agree upon, it has to be accepted that the manifestations of these vary from culture to culture. Behaviors of people are very much affected by the society they belong to. It is in the society that they learn what is right or wrong, acceptable or not. Commun: the environmen are to understa we ought to differences in from varying In sociol human societ prime import the view that vary with and and social com (Holmes, 200 based on the universal "or culture that good and tru the vitality ethical judg contexts (Fia Thus, c not, in the s celebration be manifest in the supe cultural rel expansion c Moral Re In eff that differe objective, in Sikka, 2 traditions No and tradi on the ba should d understan 30 ns of FGM ot of ng it olve nale Culture is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Burke, 2008). It is one big chuck of our society that dictates how we are supposed to act in varying situations based on what is right and wrong, acceptable or not. As our actions and perspectives are culturally constructed, so is our moral behavior. ugh able tion Pop-Up Question No. 2.1 How do you think your community influences your behavior? GM, t an orld epts Oral sm. ed, our ted s in ing ital a ed as me ms ur he ot s al S, n t, h e Since culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior (Schaefer, 2013), it is only right to comprehend and appreciate its impact in the over-all understanding of people of who they are and in their decision makings. The Filipino Way Pop-Up Question No. 2.2 How does culture define moral behavior? In the Philippines, one way of looking (at the problem of) morality is to reflect on the prevailing norms of right and wrong among Filipinos (Gorospe, 1966). As majority of us adhere to religious ideals, particularly Christian ones, our concept of morality hinges from what we have to do as Christians, if it is in adherence or in conflict with what we need to do as individual entities or a collective group. Gorospe lists the following as distinct Filipino moral norms: 1. Group-centeredness or group-think. As Gorospe explained, what will others say" usually determines Filipino moral behavior. He perfectly calls this as the Filipinos' "conscience from the outside." 2. The "Don't be caught" attitude based on shame or fear of the authority figure. For example, even if there is already a national smoking ban in the country at present, there are still those who disregard the law since they are not being caught by authorities anyway. Pop-Up Question No. 2.3 Give one Filipino cultural practice that should never be tolerated and explain why. humanly tenable and acceptable practices, which value, and not endanger human life in general. We should never be in agreement to practices which are devaluing human life. However, there is a need for a thorough observation and understanding of the culture of people. One has to be very careful in assessing whether a particular practice is a violation of an individual's right. Recten. 1.0 Quiz 1-1 Pop-Up Question No. 2.10 Should cultural diversity lead to moral diversity? Explain your answer. Though cultural tolerance is highly encouraged, it would not mean that we are to compromise human life and all the universal rights associated with it. A particular culture cannot invoke cultural relativism at all times. Jacobs (2002), explains that cultural differences on its own makes a case for relativism. Although we are to respect diversity, it should be realized that there are certain moral universals that should be considered and upheld. Cultural sensitivity is the key to cultural tolerance. It is being aware that cultural differences and similarities between people exist without assigning them a value- positive or negative, better or worse, right or wrong (Dabbah, 2014). TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR CULTURAL SENSITIVITY Becoming more sensitive to cultures, including your own, is an important skill everyone should learn. The good news is you you can improve your cultural sensitivity without having to travel far from home. Here are a few tips to get you started! ? Exposure The truth of the matter is, no matter where you live, you are exposed to other cultures. Look for local festivals and events focused on other cultures: Chinese New Year, El Dia de los Muertos or Holi Festival just to name a few. Education Understanding the cultural practices of others can make or break an interaction. We show respect by observing those practices, so knowing what not to do is crucial. Learn about other cultures by reading online magazines, joumals, or blegs. Curiosity Being culturally curious doesn't mean you have to sell everything and become a backpacker. You can start small by going to a local restaurant to try a new food. Ask questions like "Is this how this dish is traditionally served in your country?" Self-Awareness Knowing more about your own culture is the most important part of developing cultural sensitivity. You can't expect to truly understand someone else unti you know yourself. Start by answering a simple question: what makes you and your culture unique? www.acajunincall.com Fig. 5. Tips for Improving Cultural Sensitivity (Carlie, n.d.) 35 pen-secret ware of it, the status rent about ow wrong f they feel he act and nding Our separates traditions out of the mmunity. make sure e laws are at society matters of les of the criptive of r patterns should be ditions of s. How we believe is erstanding One might culture to It is in the Communal groups have ways in which they show respect for people, for the law, for the environment and what not. Cultural traditions have become the go to element if we are to understand why people vary in their perspectives and their actions. In this regard, we ought to recognize and appreciate differences in moral behaviors of people from varying cultures. In sociology, known as the study of human society, cultural relativism is given prime importance. Cultural relativism is the view that moral beliefs and practices vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of particular cultures (Holmes, 2007)/ This definition is entirely based on the premise that there can be no universal "oughts", and that there is no culture that can be the basis of all that is good and true. It is important to recognize the vitality of cultural differences since ethical judgments are relative to cultural contexts (Fiala & Mackinnon, 2013). EVERYTHING COVERED BUT HER EYES WHAT A CRUEL MALE DOMINATED NOTHING COVERED BUT HER EYES WHAT A CRUEL MALE DOMINATED CULTURE CULTURE! Elhus Fig. 3. Cultural Relativism (n.d.) Thus, our morality can only be understood based on what is culturally acceptable or not, in the society where we belong. Cultural relativism then should be understood as a celebration and appreciation of cultural diversity (Kellenberger, 2011). This diversity could be manifested in the way we dress, the way we talk to the elderly, and even in our beliefs in the supernatural. It is important to underscore as well the important historical role of cultural relativism in encouraging cross-cultural understanding and contributing to an expansion of human freedom (Brown, 2008). Moral Relativism In effect, cultural relativism results to, if not implies moral relativism which maintains that different societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality and that there are no objective, and transcultural criteria for judging between these systems (Herder as cited in Sikka, 2011.) Thus, people are supposed to be understood from the perspective of the traditions that they hold dear. Pop-Up Question No. 2.4 How does cultural relativism promote moral relativism? No one has the right to intrude a society whose values are embedded in their culture and tradition. It might be improper as well to teach them what to do and what not to do on the basis of one's belief as an outsider. As diversity is celebrated in cultural relativism, so should due respect be given to people of all cultures, deferring judgments and extending understanding to all, instead. 31 What is the topic of ethics? Fthics is based Cultural Relativism vis-a-vis Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism debunks the concept of ethnocentrism- an idea that has long haunted men, in their attempt to answer which among cultural behavior should be the standard, if there is any. It is in exact opposition to cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism is the practice of taking one's own people, society and culture to be the vantage point from which all else is viewed and judged (Bruce & Yearley, 2006). People coming from first world countries could be prone to ethnocentrism. Because of the idea that they are living in ideal, powerful countries, there is a tendency that they might look down on other cultures which are totally opposite of theirs. Pop-Up Question No. 2.5 How does cultural relativism promote equality? Ethnocentric individuals are prone to misreading contexts, therefore, misjudging individuals from other cultures. When the behavior of other people is understood based on a prescribed singular tradition, they will be assumed as odd or creepy, and deem their actions as utterly wrong, if not unacceptable. Ethnocentrism leads to this prejudgment of people. Kellenberger (2001), suggests that cultural relativism is the antidote to this self- serving concept. Cultural R Cultur It empowers strengths an 1. Wha wro cult becc of a his 2. C cu be st 03 in Pop-Up Question No. 2.6 Why is ethnocentrism something that should be avoided by everyone? Conversely, those who are coming from poor and developing countries might experience enocentrism. It is the belief that one's own cultural features are a downgrade in comparison to those of other cultures, Xenoxentric individuals value commodities, style, culture or even ideas from another country or culture other than their own (Bell, 2017). The history of the Philippines affected the way Filipinos view themselves as a part of the bigger world. Since historically, we have become slaves of first world countries, generally, our mindset seem not to go further away from it- slaves to the perspective of all that is of America and Europe. This is a seamless case of xenocentrism, a by-product of historical slavery, which is evidenced in the way Filipinos value foreign commodities. Because of their historical influences, we imitate their norms, even if they do not seem fit. Nonetheless, cultural relativism purports the unseemliness of both ethnocentrism and xenocentrism. Pop-Up Question No. 2.7 Why are Filipinos more of xenocentrics than ethnocentrics? 3. C 2 Ethics and Culture Erland De Vera Palean "Most moral relativists believe that tolerance of cultural diversity is better, in some important sense, than outright bigotry. This may be perfectly reasonable, of course, but it amounts to an overarching claim about how all human beings should live. Moral relativism, when used as a rationale for tolerance of diversity, is self-contradictory." -Sam Harris Learning Outcomes Students are expected to demonstrate the following at the end of this chapter: 1. Articulate what culture means; 2. Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture; 3. Recognize and appreciate differences in moral behavior of different cultures; and 4. Define cultural relativism and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses in making moral decision. 25 long be the to be eople e idea look Aging pased their ent of self- night rade style, ). rt of rally, is of rical their eless, n. Cultural Relativism: Its Strength and Weaknesses Cultural relativism although advantageous at some points could also be detrimental. It empowers cultural tolerance while at the same time rejects moral absolutes. Below are the strengths and the dangers of cultural relativism: Strengths 1. What is considered morally right and wrong should be judged based on cultural contexts. The culture of people becomes the final arbiter of the morality of an individual act. The idea of "to each his own" exemplifies this concept. 2. Cultural relativism is an answer to cultural annihilation. If one culture is to be the final basis of morality, then it would stimulate if not encourage the annihilation of all other cultures which are considered inferior to it. 3. Cultural relativism promotes multi- culturalism. It fosters diversity of cultures and keeps individuals from being ethnocentric. The distinctiveness of culture is supposed to be celebrated and not looked down by people. Thus, cultural relativism dismisses discrimination and finds everyone in the world as our co- equals. Weaknesses 1. Cultural relativism might fall prey into the idea that universal standards do not exist. There are certain universal oughts that cannot be culturally compromised. Human rights precede societal practices, particularly those that impede our growth as individuals, and as human beings as a whole. Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics since ethical values invoke universal absolutes which it categorically dismisses. 2. If universal standards do not exist, so thus morality. The concept of what is morally right and wrong fades into the background of cultural relativism. As such, people who invoke cultural relativism are free to do whatever they want. Pop-Up Question No. 2.8 How and why is cultural relativism a threat to morality? 3. Cultural relativism gives birth to ethical relativism, which veers away from the idea that there are objective moral standards. With this, people who are ethically wrong by all standards except by their culture, can invoke cultural relativism to justify their act.If we invoke cultural relativism, then we refrain ourselves from criticizing other cultures, no matter how evil some of their practices might be, the same way that we overlook our own cultural flaws (Rachels, 2003). 33