Readings in Philippine History PDF

Readings in the Philippines History A constitution is a set of fundamental rules that determine how a country or state is governed. It outlines the basic principles and laws that govern a nation, state, or social group. Key elements of a constitution: Preamble: A statement of th...

Readings in the Philippines History A constitution is a set of fundamental rules that determine how a country or state is governed. It outlines the basic principles and laws that govern a nation, state, or social group. Key elements of a constitution: Preamble: A statement of the core values and principles that guide the nation. Structure of Government: De nes the branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial) and their powers. Rights and Freedoms: Guarantees fundamental rights and liberties of citizens. Amendment Process: Outlines the procedures for changing the constitution. Types of Constitutions: Written Constitution: A formal document that outlines the rules. Unwritten Constitution: A constitution based on customs, traditions, and legal precedents. Purpose of a Constitution: Limits Government Power: Prevents abuse of power and protects individual rights. Provides Stability: Establishes a framework for governance and ensures continuity. Promotes Justice: Upholds the rule of law and ensures fair treatment for all. Re ects National Identity: Embodies the values and aspirations of a nation. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution (1897) A provisional constitution during the Philippine Revolution Promulgated on November 1, 1897 Written in Spanish by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer Established a revolutionary government with three branches: Supreme Council: Headed by the president and four department secretaries (Interior, Foreign A airs, Treasury, and War). Supreme Council of Grace and Justice: Made decisions and a rmed/disapproved sentences by other courts, and dictated rules for the administration of justice. Assembly of Representatives: To be convened after the revolution to create a new constitution and elect a new Council of Government and Representatives of the people. Never implemented since the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed between Spanish and Philippine Revolutionary Army Preamble of the Biak-na-Bato Constitution The separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent state with its own government called the Philippine Republic has been the end sought by the revolution in the existing war, begun on the 24th of August 1896; and, therefore, in its name and by the power delegated by the Filipino people, interpreting faithfully their desires and ambitions, we the representatives of the Revolution, in a meeting at Biak-na-Bato, November 1, 1897, unanimously adopted the following articles for the constitution of the State. fl fi ffi ff B. The Malolos Constitution (1899) - Philippine Declaration of Independence was issued along with several decrees that formed the First Philippine Republic - 17 September 1898 Malolos Congress elected members composed of wealthy and educated men - 29 November 1898 approved by Congress - 21 January 1899 promulgated by Aguinaldo with the title "The Political Constitution of 1899" - Felipe Calderon patterned it after the Spanish Constitution of 1812 with in uences from Belgium, Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, French Constitution of 1793, Kartilya, Biak-na-Bato Constitution, Mabini's Constitutional Program of the Phil Republic of 1898 - The Malolos Constitution is the rst important Filipino document ever produced by the people's representatives. It is anchored in democratic traditions that ultimately had their roots in American soil - Executive powers were to be exercised by the president of the republic with the help of his cabinet - According to Title III, Article 5 of the Malolos Constitution: "The State recognizes the freedom and equality of all beliefs, as well as the separation of Church and State." Salient features: A. Declared that sovereignty resides exclusively in the people B. Stated basic civil rights C. Separated the Church and State D. Called for creation of an Assembly of Representatives to act as a legislative body E. Called for a parliamentary republic as a form of government. President was elected for a term of four years by majority of the Assembly F. Established a democratic, republican government with three branches – the Executive, Legislative, and the Judicial branches. Preamble of the Political Constitution of 1899 We, the Representatives of the Filipino People, lawfully convened, in order to establish justice, provide for common defense, promote the general welfare and insure the bene ts of liberty, imploring the aid of the Sovereign Legislator of the Universe for the attainment of these ends, have voted, decreed, and sanctioned the following political constitution. C. Acts of the US Congress (1902–1934) Dec. 10, 1898 to March 24, 1934 – Philippines was a US colony Passed two (2) acts: Philippine Organic Act of 1902 and Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 Informally acts as Philippine Constitutions as they de ne fundamental political principles: structure, procedures, powers and duties of the Philippine government The third act was the Tydings-McDu e Act of 1934 Philippine Organic Act of 1902 Also known as the "Philippine Bill of 1902," provided for the creation of a popularly elected Philippine Assembly Speci ed that legislative power vested in a bicameral legislature: Philippine Commission and Philippine Assembly Provisions included a bill of rights for the Filipinos and appointment of two non-voting Filipino Resident Commissioner in the US House of Representatives Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 Also known as "Jones Law" which removed the Philippine Commission, replacing it with a Senate elected by Filipino citizens fi ffi fi fi fi fl Also explicitly stated that Philippine independence would be granted as soon as a stable government can be established. Tydings-McDu e Act (1934) Provided authority and de ned mechanisms for the establishment of a formal constitution via constitutional convention. The Commonwealth Constitution (1935) Created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, an administrative body from 1935 to 1946 Transitional to prepare for eventual independence Provided for a unicameral National Assembly with president and vice-president elected for six-year term with no re-election Amended in 1940 to have a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives Limited term of o ce of the president and vice president to four years, with one re-election Granted women su rage two years after adoption February 8, 1935 – approval by Con-Con March 25, 1935 – rati ed by Pres. Franklin B. Roosevelt September 16, 1935 – Manuel L. Quezon elected president On December 30, President Quezon issued Executive Order No. 134, s. 1937, approving the adoption of Tagalog as the language of the Philippines, and declared and proclaimed the national language based on the Tagalog dialect as the national language of the Philippines. The 1943 Constitution Drafted by the Preparatory Committee for Philippine Independence appointed by Philippine Executive Commission Premier Hideki Tojo promised independence in 1944 Retired Justice Jose P. Laurel appointed as president, provincial representatives of a state assembly appointed by the National Assembly Jose P. Laurel was appointed president by the National Assembly, declared a state of war against US and British Empire Macapagal administration o cially recognized Laurel as a former president F. The 1973 Constitution (1973-1986) Dec. 30, 1965 Marcos was inaugurated president 1967 Philippine Congress passed a resolution calling for a Con-Con to change the 1935 Constitution 1969 Marcos was re-elected with allegations of overspending and use of government funds during campaign period Nov. 20, 1970 elections of Con-Con delegates June 1, 1971 Con-Con began with Carlos P. Romulo as convention president Controversial for removing presidential term limit Presidential Decree 1081 (Presidential Decree) declaring Martial Law on September 21, 1972. Art. VII, Sec. 11 (2), when public safety requires, caused by rampant corruption of the public o cials and growing communist insurgency, thus suspended 1935 Constitution. 1973 Constitution introduced unicameral-style government - Legislative power vested in parliamentary-style Assembly, elected for six years term Executive power was vested in the Prime Minister, also elected for six years term A President was chosen from among the Assembly, ceremonial, could be reelected for unlimited terms, not to hold any other o ce Prime Minister was head of government and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces Amended four times: ffi ffi ffi ff fi fi ffi ffi Oct. 17 and rati ed the "Citizens Assemblies" martial law be continued and rati ed Amendments Interim Batasang Pambansa substitutes for the interim National Assembly In 1978, the regular session of the Interim Batasang Pambansa is scheduled to begin on July 25 On November 14, 1978, the Regular session of the Interim Batasang Pambansa is postponed to November 29, 1978 The new constitution was rati ed in a plebiscite held on January 15, 1973. President would also become Prime Minister and continue to exercise legislative powers until such time martial law was lifted Sixth Amendment authorized to legislate on his own on “emergency” basis. 1973 Constitution further amended in 1980 and 1981. 1980 amendment extended retirement age of members of judiciary to 70 years. 1981 Amendment modi ed parliamentary system into French-style semi-presidential system. Executive power was restored to the President. Direct election of the president restored. Executive Committee composed of the Prime Minister and not more than 14 members was created to “assist the President in the exercise of powers and functions and in the performance of duties as he may prescribe.” Instituted electoral reforms. 1984 amendment abolished the Executive Committee, restored the position of Vice-President. 1973 Constitution provided a true parliamentary system. Marcos used manipulation to keep powers for himself. The nal form was the abolition of the Senate. House of Representatives became known as Batasang Pambansa, Departments became “Ministries,” cabinet secretaries to “cabinet ministers,” Executive Secretary to “Prime Minister.” 1973 Preamble We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish a Government that shall embody our ideals, promote the general welfare, conserve and develop the patrimony of our Nation, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of democracy under a regime of justice, peace, liberty, and equality, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution. G. The Freedom Constitution (1986) 1986 People Power Revolution ousted Marcos. Pres. Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 as a provisional constitution. Granted broad powers to reorganize government and remove o cials, mandating the president to appoint a commission to draft a new Constitution. Also called “Freedom Constitution.” Intended as a temporary constitution to ensure freedom of the people and the return to democratic rule. What is it all about? Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to secure the sovereignty of the State and the integrity of the national territory. Presidential system with three branches as check and balance. Allows martial law in times of emergency only for 60 days. Congress can revoke by majority vote or extend. Supreme Court may review if justifying acts are su cient. President, VP elected by direct vote, serving a single six-year term. Legislative powers in the Congress: Senate and House of Representatives (234 districts). Congress may declare a state of war through 2/3 votes in upper and lower houses. fi fi fi fi ffi ffi fi  Agrarian Reform in the Philippine Context refers to the redistribution of agricultural lands to tenant farmers and landless individuals to address issues of land ownership inequality. It is a government initiative aimed at promoting social justice and improving agricultural productivity by transferring landownership to farmers and providing them with support services such as access to credit, infrastructure, and technology. 16th–19th Century Landownership System 1.Pueblo Agricultural System: During the Spanish colonization, the Spanish government introduced the pueblo system, which reorganized dispersed native communities into centralized settlements or pueblos. These pueblos were structured to create a systematic agricultural setup, where local populations were tasked with farming and providing tributes (in the form of crops or labor) to colonial authorities. 2.King of Spain Owned the Land: Under Spanish rule, all lands in the Philippines were declared as crown lands or property of the King of Spain. Filipinos Paid Tributes The tribute (tributo) was a form of taxation imposed on Filipinos by the Spanish colonial government starting in the 16th century. Indigenous Filipinos were required to pay in cash, produce, or labor as a symbol of their submission to Spanish authority. Tributes funded colonial administration, religious missions, and defense expenses. The system placed a heavy burden on Filipinos, especially farmers, who were often exploited. Law of the Indies The Laws of the Indies were a set of royal decrees issued by the Spanish Crown to govern its colonies, including the Philippines. These laws formalized the distribution of land to certain groups: Religious Orders: Large tracts of land were given to Catholic religious groups like the Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans to build missions, churches, and schools. Encomenderos: Under the encomienda system, Spanish settlers were granted land, along with the labor and tribute of the native population residing there, in exchange for protecting and Christianizing them. Repartimiento: This system allocated land and indigenous labor to Spanish settlers or colonial o cials for a xed period. Development of the Hacienda System in the 19th Century By the 19th century, the hacienda system (large agricultural estates) emerged as a dominant form of landownership in the Philippines. The hacienda system developed as the Spanish colonial economy shifted toward cash-crop production, such as sugar, tobacco, and abaca, to meet global demand. 1860s: Landholders Required to Register In the 1860s, the Spanish colonial government implemented a policy requiring landholders to register their landholdings o cially. This was intended to clarify property ownership and increase tax revenues. During the American colonial period (1898–1946), landownership in the Philippines was addressed through various laws and policies that aimed to establish a more formalized land system. 1. Section 15 of the Philippine Bill of 1902 This was one of the rst laws enacted by the U.S. Congress to govern the Philippines. fi ffi fi ffi Provision on Land Ownership: Allowed individuals to acquire up to 16 hectares of public agricultural land. Corporations could acquire up to 1,024 hectares. 2. Philippine Commission Act No. 496 (Torrens System) Enacted in 1902, this act introduced the Torrens System of land registration to formalize and centralize property ownership. The Torrens System required landowners to register their titles with the government to obtain legally recognized ownership. 3. Public Land Act of 1903 This act aimed to encourage land cultivation by allowing public agricultural lands to be sold or leased. Filipinos could purchase up to 16 hectares, while corporations could lease large tracts of land. The act intended to open opportunities for Filipinos but largely bene ted the landed elite and foreign corporations, leaving tenant farmers landless. This policy reinforced the land tenancy system, with Filipino farmers often working as sharecroppers for wealthy landlords. 4. Sakdal Uprising (1935) The Sakdal Movement was a peasant-led rebellion that erupted in 1935 against the prevailing social and economic inequalities, especially in landownership. The Sakdalistas, led by Benigno Ramos, were tenants and farmers who opposed the dominance of wealthy landowners and the failure of the government to implement meaningful agrarian reforms. Their demands included land redistribution, lower taxes, and independence from American rule. 5. Creation of the National Rice and Corn Corporation (NARIC) The National Rice and Corn Corporation (NARIC) was established in 1936 under the administration of President Manuel Quezon. It aimed to stabilize rice and corn prices and ensure an adequate food supply. While not directly related to land redistribution, NARIC sought to support farmers by regulating grain production and marketing. After World War II, the Philippines faced severe agrarian challenges, including landlessness, tenant exploitation, and growing rural unrest. Various administrations initiated programs and policies to address these issues. Republic Act No. 34 (Signed by President Roxas, 1946) Purpose: R.A. 34 aimed to establish a fairer sharecropping system. Key Provision: Set the share-tenancy ratio to 70-30, with 70% of the harvest going to the tenant farmer and 30% to the landlord. Mandated the sharing of production costs between tenants and landlords. Land Settlement and Development Corporation (LASEDECO, 1950) Purpose: Established to resettle landless farmers and war veterans in less populated areas of the country. Key Features: Distributed public lands for agricultural use to alleviate landlessness. Focused on making idle lands productive. National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA, 1954) fi  Purpose: Created during the administration of President Ramon Magsaysay to continue the resettlement e orts started by LASEDECO. Key Initiatives: Resettled landless farmers, especially in Mindanao, to relieve population pressure in densely populated areas like Luzon. Focused on providing agricultural lands and support services to farmer-settlers. Republic Act No. 1199 (Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954) Purpose: Established comprehensive rules governing landlord-tenant relationships to protect tenant rights. Key Provisions: Regulated share tenancy and leasehold systems. Allowed tenants to choose between share tenancy or leasehold. Provided security of tenure for tenants. Creation of the Court of Agrarian Relations (C.A.R., 1955) Purpose: Established to settle disputes between landlords and tenants. Key Functions: Provided a legal mechanism for resolving agrarian con icts, such as disputes over tenancy and landlord practices. Ensured tenant protection and adherence to agrarian laws. Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA, 1952) Purpose: Provided credit and nancial assistance to small farmers and agricultural cooperatives. Key Functions: Enabled tenant farmers and smallholders to access a ordable loans for agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and equipment. During the administration of President Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965), agrarian reform was one of the key pillars of his governance. His e orts included the passage of signi cant legislation aimed at addressing the inequities of the agrarian system. One of the most notable achievements was the enactment of Republic Act No. 3844. Republic Act No. 3844: Agricultural Land Reform Code (1963) Purpose: Abolish the share tenancy system, which had long been a source of exploitation for tenant farmers. Establish leasehold tenancy to provide security and economic independence to farmers. During the administration of President Ferdinand E. Marcos, Presidential Decree No. 27 (P.D. 27) was issued on October 21, 1972, as part of his declaration of Martial Law. It became one of the most signi cant agrarian reform laws in Philippine history, aiming to address landlessness and rural poverty. Presidential Decree No. 27: Tenants Emancipation Decree Purpose: To emancipate tenant farmers from the bondage of tenancy by giving them ownership of the lands they tilled. To promote social justice and increase agricultural productivity. Key Provisions of P.D. 27: 1.Scope of the Law: Applied only to rice and corn lands. ff fi ff ff fl fi fi  Targeted areas were primarily focused on small-scale farms where tenancy was prevalent. 2.Land Transfer and Ownership: Tenants working rice and corn lands were declared owners of the land they tilled. Maximum land area covered: 7 hectares for landowners who personally cultivated their land. 3 hectares for landowners who relied on tenants. 3.Valuation of Land: The value of land to be paid by the tenant was based on 2.5 times the average annual harvest of rice or corn. Payment could be made in 15 equal annual installments. 4.Security of Tenure: Tenant farmers were granted security of tenure, meaning they could not be evicted from the land they tilled as long as they complied with the terms of ownership. 5.Prohibition of Land Fragmentation: Landholdings given to tenants could not be sold or transferred, except by hereditary succession, to prevent the land from reverting to large landlords. Under the administration of President Corazon Aquino (1986–1992), signi cant steps were taken to advance agrarian reform in the Philippines, continuing and expanding upon previous reform e orts. Her administration implemented Republic Act No. 6657 (the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law or CARL), which became the cornerstone of her agrarian reform program. Additionally, Executive Orders (E.O.) and Proclamations were issued to support and strengthen agrarian reform. Republic Act No. 6657 (1988): The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) RA 6657, enacted in 1988, is a comprehensive law that aimed to redistribute agricultural lands to the landless farmers, with the goal of alleviating rural poverty and promoting social justice. Key Provisions of RA 6657: Scope: Covered all public and private agricultural lands, with certain exceptions for agricultural lands owned by corporations or cooperatives, as well as lands used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. Land Redistribution: The law sought to redistribute land to farmer-bene ciaries through land reform programs. Farmers were granted ownership of the land they tilled. Land Valuation and Compensation: Landowners were compensated for their land based on an agreed valuation, with the government providing a mechanism for payment. Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP): The LBP was designated as the key government institution to facilitate land acquisition and provide nancial assistance to agrarian reform bene ciaries. Implementation: The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) was tasked with the implementation of the law, overseeing the land distribution process, and ensuring the welfare of the farmer-bene ciaries. Executive Order No. 228 (1987): Declaration of Land Reform fi fi fi fi ff fi E.O. 228 was issued to implement the provisions of CARL, speci cally in relation to land acquisition and distribution. Proclamation No. 131 (1987): Moratorium on Land Transfer Proclamation No. 131 was issued to declare a moratorium on land transfers to ensure the proper implementation of land reform. It sought to freeze the transfer of land titles while the government focused on redistributing land to the actual tillers. Executive Order No. 425 (1990): Restructuring of Agrarian Reform E.O. 425 restructured the implementation mechanisms of the agrarian reform program to improve e ciency and ensure better outcomes. Under the administration of President Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1998), agrarian reform continued to be a priority, with important laws and initiatives aimed at improving the situation of farmers and further advancing land redistribution. Republic Acts No. 7881 and No. 8532 are among the signi cant laws enacted during his tenure to enhance and implement agrarian reform. Republic Act No. 7881 (1995): Amending the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) RA 7881 was a landmark amendment to Republic Act No. 6657 (the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law). The law was designed to address certain limitations and challenges in the original CARL, particularly with respect to the agrarian reform program’s coverage, implementation, and the protection of agrarian reform bene ciaries (ARBs). Key Provisions of RA 7881: Exemptions and Modi cations to Coverage: RA 7881 expanded the exemptions to agrarian reform coverage for lands that were previously subject to redistribution under RA 6657. It speci cally provided exemptions for certain types of lands from the CARL’s provisions, such as lands for industrial, commercial, or residential purposes. Special Provisions on Land Valuation: It also allowed for more exibility in land valuation and the compensation mechanism for landowners whose properties were subjected to agrarian reform. The law provided a more streamlined process for landowners’ compensation and also aimed at addressing concerns about land valuation, which was a contentious issue in the implementation of the land reform program. Support Services for Farmers: The law emphasized the importance of providing support services to the agrarian reform bene ciaries, including access to credit, infrastructure, training, and technology, to ensure the success of land redistribution. Republic Act No. 8532 (1998): Strengthening the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) RA 8532, enacted in 1998, was another important amendment to RA 6657 that sought to strengthen the implementation of agrarian reform and address gaps in land redistribution. This law helped to make certain technical adjustments to the CARP, improving its e ciency and ensuring more e ective land distribution. Magkabalikat Para sa Kaunlarang Agraryo” was another agrarian reform program initiated during the administration of President Joseph “Erap” Estrada (1998–2001). This program was part of the government’s fi fl fi ffi fi fi ff ffi fi fi  broader e orts to address the issues surrounding agrarian reform in the Philippines, particularly land redistribution and the improvement of the welfare of farmers. Key Features of “Magkabalikat Para sa Kaunlarang Agraryo”: 1.Partnership between the Government and Private Sector: The program was designed to foster collaboration between the government, non-government organizations (NGOs), and the private sector to help support and empower agrarian reform bene ciaries (ARBs). Republic Act No. 9700, also known as the “Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER) Law”, was signed into law by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on August 7, 2009. This law aimed to extend the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), which was originally enacted in 1988 under Republic Act No. 6657. It provided additional measures to ensure the continued land redistribution and improvement of the lives of agrarian reform bene ciaries (ARBs). Under the administration of President Benigno Aquino III (2010-2016), there were several signi cant initiatives and programs related to agrarian reform, particularly those aimed at improving the implementation and e ectiveness of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). Here’s an overview of some key programs and concepts, including ARCCESS, APCP, ARBOs, and LCMS: 1. ARCCESS (Agrarian Reform Communities Connectivity and Economic Support Services) ARCCESS was a program aimed at providing economic support services to Agrarian Reform Communities (ARCs) in order to improve the productivity and incomes of Agrarian Reform Bene ciaries (ARBs). The program sought to connect ARCs to markets, provide training, and give access to resources such as credit, technology, and infrastructure. ARCCESS focused on developing rural infrastructure, improving the marketing of agricultural products, and ensuring sustainable agricultural practices. It was aimed at empowering ARBs by providing livelihood support and improving their access to nancial resources. The APCP (Agrarian Production Credit Program), during the administration of President Benigno Aquino III, aimed to provide nancial assistance to Agrarian Reform Bene ciaries (ARBs) for agricultural production. The goal was to improve the agricultural productivity and nancial stability of farmers who had received land through the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). ARBOs (Agrarian Reform Bene ciaries Organizations) ARBOs refer to organizations formed by agrarian reform bene ciaries that help in the coordination and management of their collective lands and agricultural activities. These organizations are crucial to the success of agrarian reform because they provide a structure for collective decision-making, and enable ARBs to access resources, training, and support services. The Legal Case Monitoring System (LCMS) under the administration of President Benigno Aquino III refers to a system developed to improve the e ciency and transparency of the legal and judicial process, speci cally in relation to agrarian reform cases. It was primarily aimed at addressing the backlog of agrarian-related cases and ensuring timely resolution of legal disputes concerning land distribution under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). ff ff fi fi ffi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi During President Rodrigo Duterte’s administration, signi cant steps were taken to continue the implementation of agrarian reform, especially in addressing the remaining land distribution issues. Some of the key initiatives related to agrarian reform included: Launch of the 2nd Phase of Agrarian Reform President Duterte launched the second phase of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) with the goal of accelerating land distribution and addressing landlessness, particularly for marginalized farmers and agrarian reform bene ciaries (ARBs). Distribution of 400 Hectares in Boracay One of the notable actions during Duterte’s administration was the land distribution in Boracay. The government aimed to distribute 400 hectares of land in Boracay to quali ed bene ciaries, particularly farmers who were residing on the island before its temporary closure in 2018. Oplan Zero Backlog The Oplan Zero Backlog was an initiative launched to address the longstanding problem of the backlog of agrarian reform cases and delays in land distribution. This program aimed to clear the backlog of land acquisition and distribution cases, land titles, and related legal issues under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) is a government initiative in the Philippines aimed at redistributing agricultural lands to landless farmers, improving land tenure, and promoting social justice and rural development. The goal is to empower farmers, especially those who have been historically disadvantaged, by providing them with land ownership and the necessary support to improve their livelihoods. fi fi fi fi