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PART I INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Chapter 1: Basics of Technical Communication Chapter 2: Barriers to Communication Chapter 3: Non-verbal Communication CHAPTER 1 Basics of Technical Communication OB...

PART I INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Chapter 1: Basics of Technical Communication Chapter 2: Barriers to Communication Chapter 3: Non-verbal Communication CHAPTER 1 Basics of Technical Communication OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION You should study the chapter In the academic environment, we encounter various situations involving to know speech or writing: conversation with friends, professors, or colleagues to the importance of technical achieve various purposes; seminars, group discussions, written tests, and communication examinations; and laboratory or project report submissions on diverse how general-purpose topics. Likewise, at the workplace, we interact with superiors and communication is subordinates, converse with them face-to-face or over the telephone, different from technical and read and write emails, letters, reports, and proposals. communication All these activities have a common denominator—the sharing of the objectives and information. For example, when you request your professor to explain characteristics of technical a concept you could not understand very well in class, you transmit communication the information to him/her that you need some clarification. Now, the the constituents of the professor receives this information, understands it, and responds by communication process giving an explanation which clears your doubt. If you are satisfied with the different levels of this explanation, you thank the professor and the communication comes communication to an end. If you are still in doubt, you once again request clarification, how communication flows in and the process continues. This process involving the transmission and an organization interchange of ideas, facts, feelings, or courses of action is known as the how and why visual aids process of communication. We give, get, or share information with others are used in technical during this process. Whether the communication is oral or written, this communication process essentially remains the same. When one becomes a part of any organization, one needs to communicate, and communicate effectively. No organization can survive without communication. All the activities an organization undertakes have communication at their hub. The better our communication skills, the greater are our chances of quick progress. However skilful one may be in other aspects such as work, knowledge, thoughts, and organization, without proper communication, those are of little use. For instance, though you may have an excellent academic record, you may not be successful in an interview if you are not able to express your ideas clearly to those on the other side of the table. It has been observed that 4 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION people who are successful in their careers generally have excellent communication skills, which is one of the very reasons for their success. Most of this is technical communication, so let us find out more about what role technical communication plays in an organization. IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Technical communication plays a pivotal role in any set-up, whether it is a business enterprise, an industry as a whole, or an academic institution. All managerial or administrative activities involve communication, be it planning, organizing, recruiting, coordinating, or decision-making. When you write reports, give instructions, or read brochures and manuals, you are involved in the process of communication. Communication serves as an instrument to measure the success or growth of an organization. For example, papers published by R&D organizations bring to light their progress. When the chief executive officer (CEO) of an organization presents his/ her company’s achievements in a meeting, each of the participants comes to know of these milestones. The higher one’s position is, the greater is their need to communicate. A labourer, for example, may not be as involved in formal communication as a top-level executive. The various types of communication not only help an organization to grow, but also enable the communicators to develop the required skills. However, though most professionals are well aware of the importance of communication, they do not develop their skills to good effect in their sphere of work. The more people participate in the communication process, the better they develop their skills in collecting and organizing information, analysing and evaluating facts, appreciating the difference between facts and inferences, and communicating effectively. To become an effective communicator, one needs to communicate, communicate, and communicate. There is no other way out. GENERAL AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Communication is important not only in an organization but also in one’s daily life. It is an integral part of daily activity. When an alarm clock goes off, it is communication through sound, urging one to get out of bed. When one feels loyal towards a particular brand of toothpaste, it is possible that the television (TV) commercials for that brand have been successful in communicating the message. Watching news on TV, saying goodbye to one’s family, or calling a cab and giving directions are all different types of communication. At the workplace, all activities revolve around oral or written communication. Interacting with one’s boss, reading the newspaper at home, or even dreaming in one’s sleep are all examples of communication.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 5 TABLE 1.1 Differences between general and technical communication General communication Technical communication Contains a general message Contains a technical message Informal in style and approach. Mostly formal No set pattern of communication. Follows a set pattern Mostly oral. Both oral and written Not always for a specific audience. Always for a specific audience Does not involve the use of technical vocabulary or Frequently involves jargon, graphics, etc. graphics, etc. Messages that are non-technical or informal in nature are categorized as general-purpose communication, whereas messages pertaining to technical, industrial, or business matters belong to the category of technical or business communication. Table 1.1 shows the differences between the two categories. OBJECTIVES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Technical communication takes place when professionals discuss a topic with a specific purpose with a well-defined audience. Technical communication usually has the following objectives: To provide organized information that aids in quick decision-making To invite corporate joint ventures To disseminate knowledge in oral or written form Let us take an example of a customer who has bought a washing machine and does not know how to use it. The customer reads the instructions in the user manual and gradually learns to operate the washing machine without any assistance. This is an example of successful technical communication. When you are confused about which camera to buy, the salesperson explains all the technical features of each model to you. If that helps in your buying decision, it is successful technical communication again. Technical communication has to be correct, accurate, clear, appropriate, and to the point. Correct information is objective information. The language should be clear and easy to understand. If the communication is through a user manual for a phone, remember that people will usually never use it unless they are stuck. And if they are stuck, they will look for instant information to solve their problem. The information must be brief and arranged sequentially so that it is easy for a user to find relevant information. It is also vital that the technical information provided in the manual be accurate. PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION For sharing information, two parties are required—the sender and the Communication can be receiver—without whom communication, which is an interactive process, defined as the exchange of information, ideas, cannot take place. At any given time, one is active and the other is passive. and knowledge between However, this is not sufficient; there should also be cooperation and a sender and a receiver understanding between them. Through what they have to communicate, through an accepted code the sender and receiver mutually influence each other. They should have of symbols. a mutually accepted code of signals making up a common language. So, 6 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.1 The process of communication communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas, and knowledge between a sender and a receiver through an accepted code of symbols. It is termed effective only when the receiver receives the message intended by the sender in the same perspective. Otherwise it becomes miscommunication. Communication Cycle Consider the communication process shown in Figure 1.1. The communication cycle involves various elements, as discussed in the following paragraphs. The first step is formulation, wherein the sender forms the content of the message to be sent. This formulation depends on the level of experience, intelligence, knowledge, and purpose of the sender. The content, once formed, is called the message. The sender encodes the message using a basic tool. This tool is nothing but the language used—words, actions, signs, objects, or a combination of these. Once encoded using proper language, the message is ready to be delivered. This delivery happens through channels or media of communication. It can be face-to-face, on paper, or through electronic or digital media such as the Internet. The receiver receives the message, decodes it, and acts on it. If the message received is the same as the message sent, there will be an appropriate response; if not, there will still be a response, but probably an inappropriate or unexpected one, as there has been a breakdown or interference in the communication. This may happen because of noise, which has been discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Noise affects the decoding part of the communication process. The transmission of the receiver’s response to the sender is called feedback. Feedback is essential, as it measures the effectiveness of communication. When a message is sent, the communication cycle is complete only when there is a response from the recipient of the ‘How well we message. Otherwise, the message needs to be re-sent. When a response communicate is is received, the message has been successfully delivered to the other party. determined not by For example, you put up a notice asking the members of your student how well we say things, council to attend a meeting on a specified date, at a particular time, at the but how well we are understood.’ location mentioned. On the day of the meeting, you find that some of –Andrew Grove them have come while the others have not turned up. In this case you have obtained both positive and negative responses to your message. However,  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 7 since you have got some feedback, the communication process is complete. You also know that it has been effective, at least from your side. Hence, to know whether the communication has been successful or not, there must be some feedback, which is nothing but an observation of the recipient’s response. The communication is fully effective only when there is a desired response from the receiver. Effective communication takes place in a well-defined set-up. This is called the communication environment. A classroom is the communication environment when a teacher delivers lectures to students. If such a communication is attempted without a proper environment, it will not have the desired effect. Similarly, a teacher’s cubicle becomes the communication environment when a student privately approaches the teacher. Thus, the essentials of effective communication are as follows: A well-defined communication environment Cooperation between the sender and the receiver Selection of an appropriate channel Correct encoding and decoding of the message Feedback LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION Having understood the communication process, let us now study the various levels at which human communication takes place: Extrapersonal Interpersonal Intrapersonal Organizational Mass Extrapersonal Communication Communication between human beings and non- human entities is extrapersonal. For example, when your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon as you return home from work, it is an example of extrapersonal communication. A parrot responding to your greeting is another example. More than any other form, this form of communication requires perfect coordination and understanding between the sender and the receiver because at least one of them transmits information or responds in sign language only. Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication takes place within an individual. We know that the brain is linked to all parts of the body by an electrochemical system. For example, when you begin to ‘feel hot’, this information is sent to the brain and you may decide to ‘turn on the cooler’, responding to instructions sent from the brain to the hand. In this case, the relevant organ is the sender, the electrochemical impulse is the message, and the brain is the receiver. Next, the brain assumes the role of sender and sends the feedback that you should switch on the cooler. This completes the communication process. This kind of communication pertains to thinking, 8 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION which is the basis of information processing. Without such internal dialogue, one cannot proceed to the further levels of communication—interpersonal and organizational. In fact, while we are communicating with another party, our internal dialogue with ourselves continues concurrently—planning, weighing, considering, and processing information. You might have noticed that at times you motivate yourself or consciously resolve to complete a certain task. Self-motivation, self-determination, and the like take place at the intrapersonal level. Interpersonal Communication Communication at this level refers to the sharing of information among people. To compare it with other forms of communication, such as intrapersonal, organizational, etc., we need to examine how many people are involved, how close they are to one another physically, how many sensory channels are used, and the feedback provided. Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants involved, they are in close physical proximity to each other, many sensory channels are used, and feedback is immediate. Also, the roles of the sender and receiver keep alternating. This form of communication is advantageous because direct and immediate feedback is possible. If a doubt occurs, it can be instantly clarified. Note that non-verbal communication plays a major role in the interpretation of a message in this form of communication due to the proximity of the people involved. Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal. For example, your interaction with a sales clerk in a store is different from that with your friends and family members; the interaction between the panel members and the candidate appearing at an interview is different from the conversation between two candidates waiting outside. Hence, depending upon the formality of the situation, interpersonal communication takes on different styles. Moreover, most interpersonal communication situations depend on a variety of factors, such as the psychology of the two parties involved, the relationship between them, the circumstance in which the communication takes place, the surrounding environment, and finally the cultural context. Organizational Communication Communication in an organization takes place at different hierarchical levels. As we have learnt, it is extremely necessary for the sustenance of any organization. Since a large number  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 9 of employees are involved in several different activities, the need to communicate effectively becomes greater in an organization. With a proper networking system, communication in an organization is possible even without direct contact between employees. Organizational communication can be further divided into the following. Internal-operational All communication that occurs in the process of operations within an organization is classified as internal-operational. External-operational The work-related communication that an organization has with people outside the organization is called external-operational communication. Personal All communication in an organization other than that for business or official purposes is called personal communication. We will learn more about communication in organizations later in this chapter. Mass Communication Mass communication is meant for large audiences and requires a medium to transmit information. There are several mass media such as journals, books, television, and newspapers. The audience is heterogeneous and anonymous, and thus the approach is impersonal. Press interviews given by the chairman of a large firm, advertisements for a particular product or service, and the like take place through mass media. This type of communication is more persuasive in nature than any other form, and requires utmost care on the part of the sender while encoding the message. Oral communication through mass media requires equipment such as microphones, amplifiers, etc., and the written form needs print or visual media. The characteristics of mass communication are as follows: Large reach Mass communication has the capacity to reach audience scattered over a wide geographical area. Impersonality Mass communication is largely impersonal, as the participants are unknown to each other. Presence of a gatekeeper Mass communication needs additional persons, institutions, or organizations to convey the message from a sender to a receiver. This ‘gatekeeper’ or mediator could be a person or an organized group of persons active in transferring or sending information from the source to the target audience through a mass medium. For example, in a newspaper, the editor decides which news makes it to the hands of the reader. The editor is therefore the gatekeeper in this mass communication process. FLOW OF COMMUNICATION Information flows in an organization both formally and informally. Formal communication refers to communication that follows the official hierarchy and is required to do one’s job. In other words, it flows through formal channels—the main lines of organizational communication. Internal-operational and external-operational communication is formal. In fact, the bulk of communication that a business needs for its operations flows through formal channels. For 10 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Managing Director Director 1 Director 2 Director 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Lateral/Horizontal Diagonal Downward Upward FIGURE 1.2 Flow of communication in an organization example, when a manager instructs a subordinate on some matter or when an employee brings a problem to a supervisor’s attention, the communication is formal. Similarly, when two employees interact to discuss a customer’s order, the communication is formal. Information of various kinds flowing through formal channels, such as policy or procedural changes, orders, instructions, and confidential reports, is formal communication. Formal communication can flow in various directions—vertical, lateral, or diagonal—as shown in Figure 1.2. Vertical Communication Figure 1.2 shows that communication can flow in any direction in an organization. Vertical communication consists of communication up and down the organization’s chain of command. Vertical communication can be classified as downward communication and upward communication according to the direction of its flow. Downward communication Downward communication flows from a manager down the chain of command. When managers inform, instruct, advise, or request their subordinates, the communication flows in a downward pattern. This is generally used to convey routine information, new policies or procedures, seek clarification, ask for an analysis, etc. People also send feedback to their subordinates on their actions through this channel. Downward communication can take any form—emails, memos, notices, face-to-face interactions, or telephone conversations. However, it should be adequately balanced by an upward flow of communication. Upward communication When subordinates send reports to inform their superiors, or to present their findings and recommendations to their superiors, communi- cation flows upward. Upward communication  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 11 keeps managers aware of the business operations as well as of how employees feel about their jobs, colleagues, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for making certain decisions or solving problems concerning the organization. The extent of upward communication, especially that initiated at the lowest level, depends on the organizational culture. In an open culture without too many hierarchical levels, i.e., in a flat structure, managers are able to create a climate of trust and respect, and implement participative decision-making or empowerment. In such an environment, there will be a considerable amount of upward communication. This happens mainly because the employees provide the input for managerial decisions. In a highly authoritative environment, where downward flow dominates, upward communication still takes place but is limited to the managerial ranks. Suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures, superior–subordinate decisions (decisions taken for the subordinate by his/her superior), review reports, statistical analyses, etc. provide restricted information to top management. Horizontal Communication Horizontal or lateral communication takes place among peer groups or hierarchically equivalent employees, i.e., employees at the same seniority level. Such communication is often necessary to facilitate coordination, save time, and bridge the communication gap among various departments. Occasionally, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. But generally, they are informally created to bypass the formal hierarchical channels and expedite action. From the organization’s point of view, lateral communication can be either advantageous or disadvantageous. As compared to vertical (downward or upward) communication, which can at times hold up and delay timely and accurate transfer of information, lateral communication can be beneficial. Nevertheless, they can also create conflicts when formal vertical channels are bypassed by employees in order to accomplish their goals, or when superiors find out that they had not been consulted before certain decisions were taken. Lateral communication enables the sharing of information with a view to apprise the peer group of the activities of a department. The Vice President (Marketing) sending some survey results in the form of a memo to the Vice President (Production) for further action is an example of lateral communication. This type of communication is vital for the growth of an organization as it builds cooperation among the various branches. It plays a greater role in organizations where work is decentralized, because there is a higher probability of communication gaps in such set-ups. Diagonal Communication Diagonal or cross-wise communication flows in all directions and cuts across the various functions and levels in an organization. For example, when a sales manager communicates directly with the Vice President (Production), who is not only in a different division, ‘A coordinated flock of but also at a higher level in the organization, they are engaged in diagonal birds or a shoal of fish communication. Though this form of communication deviates from the maintain their relative normal chain of command, there is no doubt that it is quick and efficient. positions, or alter direction In some situations, ignoring vertical and horizontal channels expedites simultaneously due to lateral communication action and prevents other employees from being used merely as messengers amongst members; this between the actual senders and receivers. is achieved due to tiny The increased use of email also encourages cross-wise communication. pressure variations.’ Any employee can communicate via email with another employee, –Wikipedia regardless of the receiver’s function or status. Since there is no specific 12 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION line of command, diagonal communication is also referred to as cross-wise, radial, or circular communication, depending upon the structure of the organization. For instance, a managing director could directly call a supervisor and give instructions. VISUAL AIDS IN TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Visual aids are an important part of written technical communication. An illustration is a visual representation such You might have observed that most technical reports, whether they are as a drawing, painting, laboratory reports, project reports, or feasibility reports, include illustrations photograph, or other work such as tables, graphs, maps, diagrams, charts, or photographs. In fact, text of art that stresses subject more than form. and illustrations are complementary in technical communication. Visual aids are also used extensively in presentations, to support the facts and figures being presented. Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in technical writing. Concepts This element depicts non-physical, conceptual things and their relationships. If you want to show how your company is organized, that is, the relationships between the different departments and officials, you could set up an organization chart—boxes and circles connected with lines that show how everything is hierarchically arranged and related. This is an example of a graphic depicting a concept. Objects Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics that show objects. If you are describing a fuel-injection system, you will probably need a drawing or diagram to explain the system properly. If you are explaining how to graft a fruit tree, you will need some illustrations of how it is done. Numbers Numbers are used while presenting data and statistics. If you are discussing the rising cost of housing in a particular city, you could use a table, with the columns showing the data for five- year periods since 1995. The rows could be for different types of housing. You could show the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs. Words Graphics are also used to depict words. You have probably noticed how textbooks put key definitions and examples in boxes with words. To further understand visual aids, let us answer the following questions: When to use? Why to use? How to use? What are the types? When Illustrations are very effective when there is a mass of statistics and complex ideas to be represented. Statis-tical data is best explained through tables, graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, or photographs. As already mentioned, text and illustrations are complementary in technical communication. Hence, whenever the information to be communicated is too complicated or  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 13 technical to transmit just through words, we use visual aids. However, they should not be used just for the sake of using them. Why Visual communication has more impact than verbal communication. Using illustra-tions has many advantages: Arouses interest and focuses on essentials Leads the reader to quicker comprehension Supports and reinforces words Saves much time and effort in explaining and interpreting complex ideas Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater accuracy Simplifies numerical data Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships Makes the descriptions vivid and eye-catching Renders a professional flavour to the communication How The following are some guidelines to use illustrations effectively. The illustrations should be neat, accurate, and self-contained appropriate to the data labelled completely self-contained integrated with the text placed as close to the first reference as possible sized appropriately so that they are clear even upon reproduction such that they create a good balance between the verbal and the visual Types Figure 1.3 classifies the various types of illustrations. It is clear from this figure that though there are various kinds of visual aids, they can be broadly classified into two main categories, namely tables and figures. All illustrations other than tables are usually categorized under figures. In the process of selecting and designing illustrations, the question of which type to use always arises. Which type of illustration can be used most effectively to accomplish the desired objective? What type will present the facts more clearly? Before these questions can be answered, and before the actual work of selecting and designing the illustration can begin, the following preliminary steps must be taken. First the material must be arranged in some sort of systematic FIGURE 1.3 Types of illustrations 14 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION order: a series, a distribution, or some other logical arrangement. Next, we must be thoroughly familiar with the material and be aware of the implications of its use. The final step involves a decision about the type of illustration to be used. Several factors are considered for a decision of this kind, such as the nature of the data, the anticipated use, and the intended audience. These factors are usually interrelated. The type of data will often aid in the selection of the appropriate type of media. For example, if the data were quantitative in nature, the selection might be from one group of charts; if the data were more qualitative in nature, the selection might be made from another group. The following pages provide samples of various types of illustrations and also briefly explain the purpose for which each of these types is used. Tables A table is a systematic arrangement of numbers, words, or phrases in rows and columns, used to depict original numerical data as well as derived statistics. It permits rapid access to and relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arranged chronologically (for example, sales figures over a ten-year period), the table can show trends—patterns of rising or falling activity. Of course, tables are not necessarily the most clear or vivid means of showing such trends or relationships between data—that is why we have charts and graphs (discussed later in this chapter). The most important use of tables is for presenting numerical data. Imagine that you are comparing different models of laser printers in terms of physical characteristics such as height, depth, length, weight, and so on—you can use a table in this case. Traditionally, the title of a table is placed on top of the table or in the first row of the table. If the contents of the table are obvious and there is no need to cross-reference the table from anywhere else in the communication, the title can be omitted. To avoid complications, tables can be considered as figures (the same as other graphics), and numbered within the same sequence. As shown in Figure 1.3, there are three types of tables: Dependent Independent Phrase Dependent tables are those whose contents cannot be understood without going through the text. This type is used for presenting less data (Figure 1.4). Independent tables are the most commonly used ones. Though the text should explain each table, readers need not go through the text to understand the contents of these tables (Figure 1.5). Phrase tables are used when the data is in words or phrases instead of numerical figures (Figure 1.6). Advantages and disadvantages The tabular form of presentation, while simple for the communicator, has both advantages and disadvantages. A lot of numerical figures can be depicted through a table. A number of TABLE I Details of inpatients admitted on 14.11.15 General ward 35 Special ward 15 Maternity ward 10 FIGURE 1.4 Dependent table  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 15 Style and Formatting Guidelines for Tables In the text just preceding the table, refer to the Put the common abbreviation in parentheses table. Explain the general significance of the along with the column or row heading. data in the table; do not expect readers to figure Right- or decimal-align numbers in columns. it out entirely for themselves. If the two entries in a column are 123 and 4, 4 Do not overwhelm readers with monster should be right below 3, not below 1. 11-column, 30-row tables. Simplify the table data When there is some special point you need to down to just that amount of data that illustrates make about one or more of the items in the your point—without, of course, distorting that table, use a footnote instead of clogging up the data. table with the information. Do not put the word or abbreviation for the unit Most of the advanced word-processing software of measurement in every cell of a column. For packages, such as Word and WordPerfect, now example, in a column of measurements all in have table-generating tools. You do not have to millimetres, do not put ‘mm’ after every number. draw the lines and other formatting details. TABLE II Fatal road accidents 2011–15 (% wise) Year Pedestrians Cyclists Others Total % 2011 2380 830 1310 4520 19.7 2012 2315 850 1615 4780 20.8 2013 2255 805 1750 4810 20.9 2014 2460 750 2060 5270 22.9 2015 2050 735 800 3585 15.7 Total 11460t 3970 7535 22965 100 Percentage 50% 17% 33% 100% FIGURE 1.5 Independent table TABLE III Goods Durability Nature/metal Availability Wires Long lasting Copper Freely Utensils Long lasting Steel Scarce FIGURE 1.6 Phrase table combinations are possible in the tabular form; for example, numeric and non-numeric data can be depicted together. However, it also has certain disadvantages: while it is a part of visual depiction, yet, visually, the details are not evident at a glance. Occasionally, the writer might, in 16 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION TABLE 1 Sales data for 2000–10 Sales data for 2000–10 Year Product A Product B 25000 2000–01 20000 7000 20000 2001–02 19899 7500 2002–03 20100 11000 15000 Sales 2003–04 18500 13000 10000 2004–05 15000 13500 5000 2005–06 15500 13250 2006–07 12000 15000 0 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2007–08 10500 16500 2008–09 8000 19258 2009–10 8500 20136 Year Product A Product B FIGURE 1.7 (a) Table presenting sales data for a FIGURE 1.7 (b) Line graph showing the same data ten-year period the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailed and complicated. Finally, there is very little visual appeal in tables. Graphs Graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is presented in tables— in a more impressive and interesting way. At the same time, however, a chart or diagram offers less detail or precision than tables. Figure 1.7 shows the difference between a table [Figure. 1.7(a)] of sales figures for a 10-year period and a line graph [Figure. 1.7(b)] for the same data. The graph presents a better sense of the overall trend but not the precise sales figure. Producing graphs As with illustrations, the following options are available for creating graphs: photocopying from other sources, generating graphics using special software, and manually drawing original graphics. Many spreadsheet application software packages (such as MS Excel) have fancy features for generating graphs—once the data is fed and the format specified, the application generates the required graph. Several types of graphs can be used. The various types are rectilinear or line graph, bar graph, pie graph, scatter graph, pictorial graph, and surface graph. Line graphs Line graphs [Figure 1.8(a) and (b)] are used to show continuous change with respect to time. For example, the increase, decrease, or no change in temperature along with time can be depicted through a line graph. If two or three experiments have been conducted, the three different readings can be depicted using three lines. Several trends (indicated by lines) over a specific period of time can be depicted by the line graph, indicating trends over time and allowing easy comparisons. However, a little caution should be exercised if the lines cross each other at points, as this can confuse the reader. Preferably, if there are criss-crossing lines, only three variables should be plotted, as too many variables would prevent the fine distinctions from being noticed, leading to erroneous conclusions.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 17 FIGURE 1.8 Line graphs Bar graphs Bar graphs are effective in emphasizing the comparison of various data items. They can be used to depict the quantity of different items during the same period or the same item during different periods. These are the simplest to construct and very easy to understand. They could be of various types: vertical with singular or multiple bars stacked (Figure 1.9) or comparative and horizontal. If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colours or designs are used to highlight the difference between the two variables. These graphs are comparative and if more than two variables in terms of the same time frame are used, a stacked vertical or horizontal bar graph is used. The greatest advantage of these bar diagrams is that they can also be used with FIGURE 1.9 Bar graph with three variables a three-dimensional effect. Presentations in this form are advantageous as they have a convincing impact, and two or more variables can be stacked without leading to difficulties in grasping the details. The colour and schematic designs added to the bars lend visual appeal to these graphs. However, there could be a lack of precision in the presentation of details, as the variables may become too cluttered and the lettering too small. Pie graphs Alternatively known as a percentage graph or circle graph, a pie graph is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion (Figure 1.10). In such type of graph, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area) is proportional to the quantity 18 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION it represents. This is one of the most popular forms used to depict the share of various categories making up a certain quantity and their correlations to the whole as a percentage. If there is a need to emphasize a particular segment, it is detached from the pie and referred to as the floating wedge. Such a pie is referred to as an exploded pie. The pie graph captures the attention of the reader more effectively than probably any other presentation would. Within one graph itself, the various segments can be highlighted. In addition to the colour pattern used, the categorization of the FIGURE 1.10 Pie graph segments can be given within, outside, or alongside the graph. However, there could be occasions when the difference is very minor and it might get blurred; for example, a segment depicting 0.5% may become too small to notice. Hence, it is not advisable to use pie graphs if the number of variables in your data is more than five, as it becomes difficult for the human eye to detect the relative percentage of too many cluttered items. Scatter graph A scatter graph is used to show the correlation between two variables. Usually, dots ( ) or crosses (×) are used to FIGURE 1.11 Scatter graph represent the data. In scatter graphs, the plotted data must lead to clusters. The absence of clustering refers to the absence of correlation between the two items represented on the horizontal and vertical axes. Notice the clustering at various places in the scatter graph given in Figure 1.11. Pictograms/pictorial graph Pictograms are similar to bar graphs, with figures or small pictures plotted instead of bars. The pictures are chosen in accordance with the variables represented. This graph is self-explanatory; for example, if a graph were to indicate the population boom in the last five years, human figures could be used, thus illustrating the point being made by the writer. In such an example, a cluster of the figures or pictures would indicate an excessive number during that period. This type of graph is not used extensively for business reports. The advantage of pictograms is that large numbers can be presented by a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort goes into the design of this graph so as to make it truly representative of the situation it seeks to address. However, it is not very useful for business reports, which contain more concrete data that cannot be represented pictorially. As pictograms are eye-catching, they are suitable for magazines (Figure 1.12). Area graphs Area graphs can be used to show how something changes over time. Usually, the x axis represents the time period and the y axis represents the variable being measured. Area  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 19 graphs can be used to plot data that has peaks (ups) and valleys (downs), or data that was collected in a short time period. These graphs also help to compare trends over a period of time. For example, when an area graph is plotted to show the water consumption in a particular educational campus, the total consumption of water in that campus as well as the consumption in individual areas can be shown (see Figure 1.13). While index lines are predominant in line graphs, the area between the FIGURE 1.12 Pictorial graph lines is highlighted in an area graph. In addition, shades of colours are also used. A darker shade is used at the bottom, and as the plot goes higher and higher, the shades become lighter. In Figure 1.13, the peak shows the total water consumption in the campus. Charts There are two types of charts: organization charts and flow charts. Organization charts Organization charts are generally used to illustrate the various positions or functions of an FIGURE 1.13 Area graph organization. Most of the communication channels in an organization are described through such charts. These charts can also be used to depict the organization of various other ideas such as the different sets of instructions given to subordinates or the different decisions taken for a particular project. Figure 1.14 shows how different options can be organized in the form of an organization chart. Flow charts Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish. They are normally used to illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships. The various elements in the chart are generally depicted through geometrical figures (Figure 1.15). Circular or oval boxes are used to indicate the start or stop of the procedure, diamond-shaped boxes represent decision-making steps, and rectangular boxes indicate processing steps. Arrows indicate the process Charts are often used flow. to make it easier to understand large quantities Drawings and Diagrams of data and the relationships In technical documents, drawings and diagrams are used to depict the between different parts of the data. objects, processes, circuits, etc. that are being described. Diagrams can be used to show the normal, sectional, or cut-away view of an object. 20 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.14 Organization chart FIGURE 1.15 Flow chart  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 21 Drawings and photographs range from those showing minimal detail to those illustrating maximal and minute details. For example, a simple line drawing of how to graft a fruit tree reduces the detail to simple lines representing the hands, the tools, the graft stock, and the graft. On the other hand, there can be complex diagrams showing a schematic view of systems; for example, the wiring diagram of a clock radio, which hardly resembles the actual physical system at all. These graphics with their gradations of detail have varying uses. In instructions, simple drawings (often called line drawings because they use just lines, without other detail such as shading) are the most common. They simplify the explanations and the objects so that the reader can focus on the key details. In descriptions, detailed drawings are used, including those with shading and depth perspectives. Figures 1.16 and 1.17 show examples of technical drawings. Several application software programs as well as the Internet provide clip arts, which are pre-made images of fairly common objects such as computers and telephones. These images can be used in technical documents along with suitable labels. Figure 1.18 shows some examples of clip art available in MS Word. One difference between photography and other forms of graphics is that a Photographs photographer, in principle, Photographs are often used in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation just records a single reports. For example, if you are recommending a photocopier, or if you moment in reality, with want to compare various cars, automated teller machines, etc., you might seemingly no interpretation. want to include photographs to support your report. A Upper crossmember front O Idler pulley B Control rod support P Rotor tower tubes C Rotor tower tubes Q Middle crossmember D AN 3 bolts R Motor mount spacers E Lower main rotor bearing S Tail boom tubes crossmember F Support tube bracket T Tail rotor belt B 210 gates G Main rotor sprocket to tooth U Jack shaft H Main rotor sprocket hub V 3/4 Pillow block bearings I Main rotor shaft W Driven pulley J 503 rotax or larger X AN4 bolts K Main frame long runs Y 1 x 3 bolts L Idler pulley bracket Z Clutch lever M Idler pulley engine spacket A1 MW 4 rod ends N Idler pulley swing arms B1 Engagement arms C1 Belts (5) super HC 3V280 gates D1 Drive pulley FIGURE 1.16 Sample drawing showing a belt drive 22 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.17 Sample diagram Photographs give the reader a realistic view of the object. However, they should have a good enough resolution so that they are clear even upon reproduction. Irrelevant details can be removed from photographs by working on the negatives. Maps Maps graphically represent spatial relationships on plane surfaces. They are used to establish a frame of reference and to facilitate the understanding of spatial relationships that are difficult to describe in words, especially to serve as navigational aid. They may take different forms, such as the map of a political territory (town, state or country), the layout of a store or a manufacturing plant, or the market area of a business. They are appropriate when discussing or presenting statistical data through geographical indicators or expressing relationships between locations. Figure 1.19 shows the map of India’s population density. The choice of scale for a map depends on its purpose and the amount of detail to be shown. It should be an accurate representation of the geographic details (places, buildings, streets, etc.). Cross-hatching or shading in maps is used to portray absolute amounts, rates, ratios, and percentages of data, such as health statistics, population, employment, traffic flow, and land FIGURE 1.18 Example of clip art available with MS usage. Colours, symbols, and pictograms may be Word used to make maps more appealing and attractive.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 23 FIGURE 1.19 Sample map illustration SUMMARY Technical communication is process of sharing in- response, and feedback. The success of commu- formation through various modes with a specific nication lies in positive feedback. Sometimes the audi-ence for a specific purpose. The process in- message received is not the same as the message volves the transmission and interchange of ideas, intended by the sender; this is because of the pres- facts, feelings, or courses of action. Technical com- ence of noise. munication is different from general communica- Communication takes place at different levels: tion. The objective of technical communication is extrap-ersonal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, organ- to present correct, accurate, concise, clear, and ap- izational, and mass communication. In an organi- propriate information. zation the flow of communication can be vertical, The communication process includes six main horizontal, or diagonal. elements—sender, message, channel, receiver, 24 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Visual aids are a very important component investigated and presented. The various types of of written technical communication. These are visual aids that can be used in technical documents used extensively in reports, presentations, and are tables, graphs, charts, drawings and diagrams, proposals, to support the facts and figures being photographs, and maps. EXERCISES 1. Answer the following questions in about 200 3. Human communication takes place at different words each: levels. How can you distinguish between intrap- (a) How is general-purpose communication dif- ersonal and interpersonal communication? ferent from technical communication? 4. What are the characteristics of mass communica- (b) Communication is the process of sending tion? Explain the term gatekeeper. and receiving information. Explain the 5. What are the various modes of communication communication process in the light of this flow in an organization? What is upward flow statement. Draw the communication cycle to and what is the purpose of this mode in an support your answer. organization? (c) How is feedback important in communi­cation? 6. How can visual aids enhance technical commu- Give two examples of delayed feedback. nication? What points should be borne in mind (d) Explain ‘flow of communication’. Illustrate it while using visual aids? with examples from the existing communi­ 7. Project: Visit a few organizations (academic institu- cation patterns in your college/institute. tions/business enterprises/industries) and deter- 2. What do you understand by the term technical mine the communication patterns existing there. communication? Explain its importance with Classify them into oral and written categories. Also examples. figure out the direction in which these flow. Pre- pare a two-page report on each of your visits. CHAPTER 2 Barriers to Communication OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION You should study the chapter Having studied the basic principles of technical communication to know in Chapter 1, we now move on to a very important factor related to what communication barriers communication. Imagine you are a junior executive who has just joined are and what causes them as a trainee in an automobile company. You go to meet your boss, to how to avoid communication seek permission for visiting the automobile exhibition being held in failures caused by noise Delhi. While you are talking, two of your colleagues also arrive to get how to classify your boss’ signature on some bills. You fall silent while he signs the communication barriers bills. After they leave, you resume talking but you find that your boss has not really grasped what you have said earlier. You later analyse this situation, and realize that your colleagues’ intervention led to your boss’ lack of concentration. As the sender, you had patiently tried to express your wish. But because of the interruption by your colleagues, the receiver, your boss, could not decode your message fully. Hence the communication process failed. This discussion brings us to the introduction of the term ‘barrier’ in communication. A barrier is defined as something that prevents or controls progress or movement. This definition implies that a barrier is something that comes in the way of the desired outcome. In the example given above, notice that the arrival of your colleagues was an event that prevented your boss from concentrating completely on what you were saying. So, we say that this incident was a barrier to the communication between you and your boss. All of us have come across such situations while communicating with parents, friends, or colleagues. Let us now learn how to avoid such communication failures and make our interactions more effective. We all know that effective communication is the nerve of all the business activities in an organization. Even a slight break in the com- munication flow can lead to misunder- Communication is effective standings. Communication is effective only if it creates the desired only if it creates the desired impact on impact on the receiver. the receiver. Often, managers get frus- 26 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION trated in their efforts, and end up saying that nobody in the organization understands them. Many employees fail to listen attentively during meetings, or send incomprehensible business letters. Such situations arise due to the presence of barriers in communication, which can take many forms such as inadequate communication skills. There are numerous such barriers associated with communication. These need to be addressed in order to ensure that no gap occurs in the communication cycle. A common barrier is the wrong assumptions made about the person to whom the message is being sent and sometimes about the message itself. For example, if the sender of the message is talking about a technical proposal, he/she would be wrong if he/she makes assumptions about the receiver’s level of technical knowledge. The problem can be resolved to a great extent if the sender of the message analyses his/her message thoroughly and anticipates the likely response before sending it. If a particular communication fails to evoke the desired response, the following five steps can help solve the problem: Identify the problem Opt for the best solution Find the cause/barrier Follow up rigorously Work on alternative solutions The first step—identifying the problem—is the most difficult. We first realize that there is a problem when we do not receive the desired feedback. To identify the problem correctly, it is mandatory that the feedback be analysed carefully. For example, you have asked your subordinate to write a bimonthly report, and until the next month, he has not done so. When you ask him about the delay, he replies that he was asked to produce the report bimonthly. The problem here is that to you the term bimonthly meant twice in a month, whereas to your subordinate it meant once in two months. Later, you look up the dictionary and find that bimonthly means twice a month as well as once in two months! Having identified the problem, the next step is to find out what caused it. In this situation, we could say that it was the choice of words. The third step is to explore possible solutions. In this case, a way out would be to choose words that are more specific in their meaning, i.e., words that could mean only one thing—the intended meaning. After thinking through the alternatives, apply the best solution that not only solves the problem, but also does not create any new difficulties. Hence, instead of using the troublesome term bimonthly, either twice a month or once a fortnight could be used. After successfully completing all the four steps, the last step requires that we implement the best solution properly. Having once come across a particular communication barrier, there should be a conscious effort to never let it crop up again. In this chapter, we will discuss the various types of communication barriers, and how they can be identified and overcome. Before going on to consider the different barriers to communication, however, let us first understand the related term ‘noise’. Noise Any interference in the message sent and the message received leads to the production of ‘noise’ (see Figure. 2.1). The term communication barrier, or that which inhibits or distorts the message, is an expansion of the concept of noise. Noise here does not mean sound, but a break or disturbance in the communication process. If noise occurs because of technological factors, it is not too much of a problem as it can be removed by correcting the technological faults. However, if the noise is due to human error, the parties involved in the communication process need to take corrective measures.  BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 27 Noise is defined as any unplanned interference in the communication environment, which affects the transmission of the message. Noise can be classified as Sent Received message message channel and semantic. Channel noise is any interference Noise in the mechanics of the medium used to send a message. Familiar examples of channel noise are distortion FIGURE 2.1 Noise interferes in the correct trans- due to faulty background, noise in telephone lines, mission of messages or too high a volume or pitch from loudspeakers. In written communication, illegible handwriting can Noise is defined as any be termed as channel noise. Whereas channel noise develops externally, unplanned interference semantic noise is generated internally, resulting from errors in the message in the communication itself. It may be because of the connotative (implied) meaning of a word environment, which affects that is interpreted differently by the sender and the receiver. For example, the transmission of the message. the word ‘condescend’ may have been used in a positive manner, implying grace or dignity of manner, but the receiver might interpret it in a negative manner, related to a (baseless) assumption of superiority. Other examples of semantic noise are ambiguous sentence structure, faulty grammar, misspellings, and incorrect punctuation. CLASSIFICATION OF BARRIERS Quiet or A barrier acts like a sieve, allowing only a part of the message quite? to filter through; as a result, the desired response is not achieved. To communicate smoothly and effectively in an organization, irrespective of your position, you need to know how barriers operate, why they cause misunderstandings, and how to minimize their negative impact. How often have you said, ‘I meant to say this and not that’? Even with the best intentions, communication barriers crop up and our written and spoken messages are misunderstood. If we classify barriers according to the processes of message formation and delivery, we can identify three types: Intrapersonal Interpersonal Organizational Intrapersonal Barriers Individuals are unique because of differences in perceptions, experiences, education, culture, personality, etc. Each of us interprets the same information in different ways, as our thinking varies. These differences lead to certain inbuilt or intrapersonal barriers. Let us explore all the common causes that lead to these intrapersonal barriers: Wrong assumptions Wrong inferences Varied perceptions Blocked categories Differing background Categorical thinking Wrong assumptions Many barriers stem from wrong assumptions. For example, when a doctor tells her patient that he has to take some medicine only ‘SOS’ (i.e., during an emergency), without knowing whether the patient understands the term ‘SOS’, she is creating a barrier in their communication. Here the 28 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION doctor has made a wrong assumption about her patient’s level of knowledge. Wrong assumptions are generally made because the sender or the receiver does not have adequate knowledge about the other’s background or entertains certain false concepts, which are fixed in his/her mind. To strengthen your skills as a communicator, try to put yourself in the shoes of the listener. This exercise will prevent making wrong assumptions about the receiver. Varied perceptions ‘Take this medicine only SOS.’ We all know the story of the six blind men and their description of an elephant. The elephant was perceived by each man as a fan, a rope, a wall, a sword, a snake, and a tree. None of the blind men were wrong, as the part of the elephant body touched by each man compared well with the various objects they named. This is how different individuals hold different viewpoints about the same situation. Similarly, individuals in an organization also perceive the same situation in different ways. Let us take the case of disagreement between two individuals. If you are close to one of them, you are likely to be biased. You may perceive your friend’s arguments as correct, and hence, may not be able to appreciate his/her opponent’s point of view. It is all a matter of perception. The best way to overcome this barrier is to step back and take a wider, unbiased perspective of the issue. Differing backgrounds No two persons have the same background. Backgrounds can be different due to different education, culture, language, environment, financial status, etc. Our background plays a significant role in how we interpret a message. At times, something not experienced earlier is difficult to interpret or appreciate. Think of a class where the professor talks about his rock-climbing adventure. Students who have experienced rock climbing may be able to appreciate the professor’s talk, while others who have never been into adventure sports may not find it interesting at all. The representative of a computer company would not make much sense to a group of doctors if in his/her presentation he/she goes into details about the hardware aspects To enhance of the computer that he/she plans to install in a hospital. communication skills, To enhance communication skills, it is necessary to know the it is necessary to know background of the audience. This information can accordingly be used to the background of the construct the message. Empathy or identification with another person is the audience. This information solution to this barrier. We must make an effort to understand what the can accordingly be used to listener can find difficult to comprehend in our message because of the construct your message. difference between our background and that of the listener. The language  BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 29 understood by the receiver should be used to avoid ambiguity and reduce multiple meanings. The exact meaning of a word resides in the mind of the speaker; therefore, one ought to be cautious while using words. The multiple meanings of a word can astronomically increase the problem ? ? of communication barriers. A word can have several connotations (implied meanings) and definitions. The more a word is prone to multiple meanings, the greater are the chances of it being misunderstood. A conscientious speaker is careful to explain her message in context by rephrasing and repeating words that can be confusing. ‘... and if you clip a carabiner to each end of the sling, you have a quickdraw...’ Confusables Common groups of words are sometimes confused something happen: ‘The new management or ignored by users. wanted to effect drastic changes, but the unions Ability is a skill that you have mastered through felt these would adversely affect workers.’ study or practice. Capacity refers to innate talent. Refer to Chapter 16 for more on this. If something affects you, it has an effect on you. To effect something, however, means to make Wrong inferences Suppose you have returned from a business trip and you find that two of your colleagues are absent. They do not turn up for several days. Since there is a recession on, you draw an inference that they have been laid off. The fact is that they have been promoted and sent to another department. This is an example of fact-inference confusion. It has happened because you failed to distinguish between what actually exists and what you had assumed to exist. Inferences are more dramatic than facts, and for this reason they can provide more scope for gossip and rumour to spread. When professionals analyse material, solve problems, and plan procedures, it is essential that inferences be supported by facts. Systems analysts, marketing specialists, advertisers, architects, engineers, designers, and others must work on various premises and draw inferences after collecting factual data. When presenting any inference in the course of your work, you could use qualifiers such as ‘evidence suggests’ or ‘in my opinion’ to remind yourself and the receiver that this is not yet an established fact. Blocked categories In general, we react positively to information only if it is in consonance with our own views and attitudes. Conversely, when we receive information that does not conform to our personal views, habits, and attitudes, or appears unfavourable to us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve it. Rejection, distortion, and avoidance are three common, undesirable, and negative reactions to unfavourable information. 30 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION When Writing or Speaking 1. Think of your audience. How well do they put off if you use words that sound unprofes- understand the language? How much do they sional or non-technical. know about your logic? 5. Feedback serves as an effective barometer 2. Select your words with care, especially technical to find out if the intended message has been terms. Words must be suited to your audience’s put across. Ask the receiver to paraphrase the language skills. message and also ask questions on what was 3. If you have to use slightly difficult or unfamiliar said. words, try to explain these as part of your 6. Even if you have an extensive vocabulary, never communication. use words merely to impress. Rather use them 4. Do not fall into the trap, however, of oversimpli- to express your ideas as simply and clearly as fying your language; your audience could get possible. Communication and other technologies are advancing so rapidly today that many people find it difficult to quickly adapt themselves to these developments. Instead of taking advantage of these developments, which help expedite the communication process, such people tend to resist and criticize them. This is a result of having a closed mind. Such people are called misoneists. They tend to ignore variations and differences, which leads to unreliable conclusions. Some people have certain prejudices so deeply embedded in their mind that these cannot be challenged. Similarly, people who are very rigid in their opinions may face problems in communicating effectively. For example, one of your fellow students may think that only students of science are good in reasoning; another might be of the opinion that young executives are more efficient than older ones. Such people fall into blocked categories, because they may not be able to accept any deviation from their points of view. Categorical thinking People who feel that they ‘know it all’ are called pansophists. This type of thinking exists in people who feel that they know everything about a particular subject, and therefore refuse to accept any further information on that topic. For example, in a general body meeting of your organization, you are to be briefed about the annual budget. However, you do not pay attention because you feel you have already been briefed about it by your secretary the previous day. Later you propose that new vehicles have to be bought. Imagine your embarrassment when you realize that the topic was discussed and a decision has already been taken in the general body meeting. This type of thinking can pose a major barrier, leading to a failure in communication. In such instances, the receivers refuse information because of their ‘know-it- all’ attitude. The clue to detecting this barrier in ourselves and in others is the use of words like all, always, everybody, everything, every time and their opposites like none, never, nobody, and nothing. If a message contains too many of these words, then there is a fair chance of the communication getting distorted. To avoid this barrier, substitute these words with phrases like ‘in most situations’ or ‘most likely’. Label your opinions with phrases like, ‘it appears to me’ or ‘the evidence indicates’. If your data is insufficient, it is better to admit that you are unaware of the rest of the information rather than being indirect. To sum up, good communicators should:  BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 31 Be non-judgemental Listen, and above all, paraphrase Be empathetic Remember that generalizations do not Not assume anything always hold good in all situations Stick to the subject Interpersonal Barriers Intrapersonal barriers stem from an individual’s attitudes or habits, whereas interpersonal barriers occur due to the inappropriate transaction of words between two or more people. The two broad categories into which these barriers can be classified are: Inefficient communication skills Negative aspect nurturing in the climate The second point refers to a situation when negative tendencies nurtured by some people affect others around them. This leads to a barrier as individuals start thinking only negative. Interpersonal barriers creep in as a result of the limitations in the communication skills of the encoder or the decoder, or of both. In addition, they may also occur because of some disturbance in the channel or medium of communication. If two people are involved in communication, the traits that distinguish them as individuals can be the root cause of a communication problem. In a business environment, we neither attempt to change these traits, nor can we do it; however, we can try and understand the role of differences among individuals that lead to communication breakdowns. The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are: Limited vocabulary Communication selectivity Incompatibility (clash) of verbal Cultural variations and non-verbal messages Poor listening skills Emotional outburst Noise in the channel Limited vocabulary Inadequate vocabulary can be a major hindrance in communication. At times, we find ourselves searching for the exact word or phrase that would be appropriate for what we are trying to express. For example, during a speech, if you are at a loss for words, your communication will be very ineffective, and you will leave a poor impression on the audience. On the other hand, if you have a varied and substantial vocabulary, you can create a favourable impression on your listeners. Merely having a wide vocabulary is of no use unless the communicator knows how to use it. In communication, the denotative (literal or primary) and connotative (implied or suggested) meanings of the words used should be absolutely clear to the receiver. Therefore, one should make constant efforts to increase one’s vocabulary by regularly reading a variety of books and listening to native speakers of the language. Thereafter, using a wide vocabulary regularly will also help to make its usage comfortable and natural. Chapter 16 discusses vocabulary development in detail Incompatibility of verbal and non-verbal messages Imagine a situation where your CEO introduces the newly recruited middle-level manager to the other employees. In a small speech, he conveys the message that he is very delighted to have the new manager appointed in his office. However, the expression on his face shows just the opposite of what he is saying. The stark difference between the verbal and non-verbal aspects of his communication leaves his listeners feeling confused and puzzled. A communicator should acclimatize himself to the communication environment, think from the angle of the listener, and then communicate. Misinterpreted non-verbal 32 TECHNICAL